-  /  9 


Frontispiece. 


FARMING  PAYS. 


AGRICULTURE 


BY 


D.   D.   MAYNE 


PRINCIPAL     OF    SCHOOL    OF    AGRICULTURE   AND    PROFESSOR 
OF  AGRICULTURAL  PEDAGOGICS,    UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 


K.   L   HATCH 

PROFESSOR   OF   AGRICULTURAL    EDUCATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF   WISCONSIN 


NEW   YORK   •:•    CINCINNATI    •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BCLQK. COMPANY 

/VJ" 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 
D.   D.  MAYNE. 

COPYRIGHT,  1913,  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


M.   AND   H.    AGRICULTURE. 

w.  P.    5 


S4-95 


PREFACE 

THE  character  of  agriculture  as  a  fundamental  science,  as 
well  as  the  fact  that  it  is  the  primary  interest  of  a  vast  majority 
of  the  citizens  of  our  country,  makes  it  the  most  favorable 
vocational  subject  for  general  adoption  in  secondary  schools. 
There  are  in  present  use  many  elementary  treatises  on  this 
subject,  the  use  of  which  has  created  a  strong  demand  for  a 
more  advanced  course  in  agriculture.  Just  what  such  a  course 
should  include  and  how  the  work  should  be  presented  are 
questions  that  will  be  answered  by  many  authors  in  many 
different  ways  in  the  next  few  years. 

Since  agriculture  involves  the  elementary  principles  of  so 
many  sciences,  and  since  its  study  interprets  so  much  of  the 
student's  environment,  making  it  full  of  meaning,  we  believe 
that  the  subject  should  be  studied  in  the  first  years  of  the 
secondary  course.  It  presents  an  interesting  introduction  to 
all  the  natural  sciences  and  directs  the  mind  of  the  student 
inquiringly  toward  the  further  study  of  the  problems  of  these 
involved  sciences.  It  answers  in  the  very  beginning  the  proper 
question  of  the  boy,  "  Of  what  use  is  the  study  of  chemistry, 
of  botany,  and  of  zoology  ?  " 

The  time  has  come  to  undertake  the  study  of  agriculture 
seriously,  and  not  merely  as  a  means  to  glorify  country  life 
and  to  arouse  enthusiasm  for  the  possibilities  of  farm  endeavor. 
Students  should  feel  that  certain  definite  principles  should  be 
mastered  and  their  application  understood.  Yet  this  subject 
should  not  be  made  so  ultra  scientific  that  these  students  shall 

5 


6  PREFACE 

be  forced  through  the  long  process  of  laboratory  method  to  re- 
discover what  scientists  have  fully  established.  There  can  be 
no  real  substitute  for  the  farm  or  the  garden  as  a  practical 
laboratory.  On  this  account  we  have  given  very  few  ex- 
periments to  be  performed  by  the  students. 

The  order  of  the  main  topics  as  given  in  the  text  is  logical, 
but  it  may  be  varied  to  suit  special  conditions.  A  very  ele- 
mentary agricultural  chemistry  is  given  first,  because  the  names 
of  the  elements  directly  concerned  in  plant  life,  and  somewhat 
of  a  familiarity  with  them,  serve  as  a  basis  for  all  agricultural 
teaching.  It  also  renders  possible  the  use  for  reference  of  a 
larger  number  of  more  advanced  textbooks  and  articles  by  sci- 
entists than  would  otherwise  be  available.  Familiarity  with  the 
elements  and  with  selected  compounds  is  the  purpose  rather 
than  adherence  to  applications  that  are  directly  related  to  agri- 
culture. If  chemical  laboratories  are  accessible  for  use,  some 
of  the  experiments  given  and  others  to  be  dictated  by  the 
teacher  may  well  be  performed  by  the  student,  but  excellent 
results  for  the  purpose  here  intended  may  be  secured  if  the 
experiments  are  performed  by  the  teacher  before  the  class. 

It  is  not  expected  that  this  textbook  will  meet  all  the  con- 
ditions in  all  schools,  and  it  is  hoped  that  in  no  school  will  it 
be  pursued  as  a  complete  treatise  on  the  general  subject  of 
agriculture.  Certain  parts  should  be  amplified  and  others 
eliminated  from  class  consideration  according  to  local  demands 
and  the  interest  and  ability  of  the  class. 

If  a  real  interest  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  agriculture  is 
stimulated  and  a  basis  for  the  understanding  of  the  literature 
of  the  subject  is  furnished,  we  feel  that  the  utmost  that  can 
be  expected  from  a  course  in  a  secondary  school  has  been 
achieved. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD       ....09 

Oxygen 14 

Hydrogen 18 

Nitrogen 20 

Carbon 28 

Phosphorus 44 

Potassium 49 

Calcium 52 

Magnesium 55 

Sulphur 56 

Iron 59 

Chlorine  ..........  61 

Sodium    ..........  63 

Aluminium       .........  65 

Silicon 66 

II.  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 68 

Soil 68 

Drainage .86 

Irrigation 90 

Dry  Fanning 95 

Soil  Fertility 98 

III.  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 118 

IV.  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 182 

Cereals 182 

Sugar  Plants 213 

Oil  Plants 218 

Fiber  Plants     .         .         „         .         ...         .         .         .  218 

Grasses 224 

Vegetables  and  Fruits      .                                             „  232 


CONTENTS 


:HAPTHR 

PAGE 

V. 

PLANT  DISEASES     

263 

VI. 

INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS  OF  SPECIAL 

IN- 

TEREST   TO   FARMERS          

.        292 

Worms         

.        292 

Insects         

.        294 

Animals  in  Other  Classes      

.        32I 

VII. 

FARM  ANIMALS       

.        324 

Cattle  

•        324 

The  Beef  Type    

•        325 

The  Dairy  Type  

•    331 

Pure  Milk    

•     340 

Horses         

•     343 

Sheep  

•     351 

Swine  

•     358 

Poultry         

•     363 

VIII. 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING      

•     380 

IX. 

FARM  MANAGEMENT       

•     398 

Investments          

.     400 

Farm  Labor          .         .         .         .         . 

.     403 

Farm  Planning     

•     4C5 

Management  of  the  Soil        ..... 

•     407 

Crop  Rotation 408 

Accounting 411 

APPENDIX 413 

[NDEX 423 


HIGH  SCHOOL  AGRICULTURE 

CHAPTER  I 


Elements.  —  All  substances  in  the  universe  are  com- 
posed of  certain  elements.  About  eighty  of  the  ele- 
ments1 are  familiar  to  chemists.  Of  this  number  there 
are  ten  which  are  of  chief  importance  in  explaining  the 
composition  of  the  soil  and  the  growth  of  plant  and 
animal  life. 

The  Most  Important  Ten  Elements.  - 

Oxygen O  Potassium,  K  (L.  Kalium) 

Hydrogen  H  Iron    .     .     Fe  (L.  Ferrum) 

Nitrogen N  Calcium      ....     Ca 

Carbon C  Magnesium      .     .     .     Mg 

Phosphorus  P  Sulphur  S 

To  these  may  be  added  four  others  that  are  of 
less  importance:  (i)  Chlorine,  Cl;  (2)  Sodium,  Na; 
(3)  Aluminium,  Al;  and  (4)  Silicon,  Si. 

Compounds.  —  A  substance  formed  by  the  union  of 
two  or  more  elements  is  called  a  compound.  Most  of 
the  substances  that  we  see  and  handle  are  compounds. 
Water  is  a  compound  made  by  the  union  of  the  element 
hydrogen  and  the  element  oxygen.  Sugar  and  starch 

1A  list  of  known  elements  with  their  symbols  will  be  found  in  the 
Appendix. 

9 


10  THE  ELEMENTS    OF  PLANT  FOOD 

are  compounds  formed  by  the  union  of  the  elements 
carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen. 

Mixtures.  —  Sometimes  these  elements,  although 
associated  intimately,  do  not  combine.  Air  is  a  good 
illustration  of  a  mixture  of  elements  which  do  not 
form  a  single  chemical  compound.  It  is  composed  of 
the  elements  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon  dioxide, 
with  small  quantities  of  water  vapor  and  several 
other  less  important  compounds.  If  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  are  united  to  form  a  compound,  as  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen  are  united  to  form  water,  they 
form  a  substance  which  is  different  from  either  of  the 
elements. 

Molecules.  —  According  to  the  generally  accepted 
theory,  all  bodies  are  composed  of  very  minute  particles, 
called  molecules.  The  molecules  are  so  small  that  they 
cannot  be  seen  separately  even  by  the  highest  power 
microscope.  They  are  the  smallest  particles  of  matter 
that  can  exist' alone  and  still  hold  the  characteristics  of 
the  body  of  which  they  are  a  part. 

A  molecule  of  water,  then,  is  the  smallest  particle  of 
water  that  can  exist  and  still  remain  water.  If  it 
became  any  smaller  than  the  molecule,  it  would  cease  to 
exist  as  water,  and  would  return  to  the  elements  oxygen 
and  hydrogen,  of  which  water  is  composed. 

The  Atom.  --The  atom  is  one  of  the  parts  of  which 
a  molecule  is  composed.  Nearly  every  molecule  is  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  atoms.  The  molecule  of  water 
is  composed  of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  and  one  of 
oxygen ;  the  cane  sugar  molecule  consists  of  twelve 
atoms  of  carbon,  twenty-two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  and 
eleven  atoms  of  oxygen,  while  the  molecule  of  oxygen 
consists  of  two  atoms  of  oxygen. 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF   PLANT  FOOD  n 

Two  Kinds  of  Changes.  —  When  any  change  takes 
place  of  such  a  nature  as  to  change  the  molecule,  that 
is,  to  break  up  the  molecule  into  atoms  or  to  make  the 
atoms  form  new  combinations,  this  change  is  called 
a  chemical  change.  Any  change  that  does  not  alter 
the  composition  of  the  molecule  is  called  a  physical 
change. 

Sugar  is  composed  of  molecules  made  by  the  combi- 
nation of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen.  Sugar  may 
be  pulverized,  it  may  be  ground  to  finest  powder,  it 
may  be  dissolved  in  water,  but  it  still  remains  sugar. 
The  molecules  are  sugar  molecules.  Such  changes 
are  physical  changes.  If,  however,  we  hold  the  sugar 
over  a  flame  till  it  burns,  the  molecules  of  sugar  are 
destroyed,  but  other  combinations  of  the  elements 
which  were  in  the  sugar  pass  off  into  the  air.  There 
is  nothing  left  of  it  as  sugar. 

Chemical  Affinity.  -  -  The  tendency  of  the  atoms  of 
certain  elements  to  combine,  under  favorable  conditions, 
with  the  atoms  of  certain  other  elements  is  called  chem- 
ical affinity.  The  atoms  of  certain  elements  when 
brought  into  intimate  relations  with  the  atoms  of  cer- 
tain other  elements  have  a  strong  affinity  for  them. 
It  is  this  attraction  that  holds  the  atoms  together  in  a 
molecule  of  water  and  prevents  them  from  separating 
into  two  elements,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  It  is  by 
this  attraction  that  under  the  influence  of  sunlight  the 
atoms  in  certain  compounds  find  stronger  affinities  in 
atoms  of  other  compounds  than  in  their  present  com- 
pound, and  new  compounds  are  formed,  resulting  in 
growth  of  plant  life  and  in  decay. 

It  takes  but  little  imagination  to  see  these  warring 
affinities  asserting  themselves  in  the  molecules  of  every 


12  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

substance.  Under  some  conditions  the  changes  are 
more  active,  but  affinity  never  ceases  to  be  present. 

Light,  heat,  and  electricity  are  influences  that  aid 
in  the  separation  of  the  atoms  of  one  compound  and 
the  forming  of  others.  Most  compounds  are  destroyed 
at  very  high  temperatures  and  remain  unchanged  at 
very  low  temperatures.  Under  these  potent  influ- 
ences chemical  changes  are  going  on  about  us  all  the 
time. 

Chemists  have  agreed  on  certain  symbols  which  shall 
represent  an  atom  of  the  element.  This  symbol  is 
usually  the  first  letter  or  the  first  and  second  letters 
of  the  name  of  the  element,  but  to  avoid  confusion  some 
elements  have  for  symbols  the  first  and  second  letters 
of  their  Latin  names ;  thus,  P  represents  the  atom  of 
phosphorus  and  K  (from  Latin  kalium)  represents  an 
atom  of  potassium. 

A  compound  is  represented  by  the  symbols  of  its 
elements  written  one  after  the  other.  HC1  represents 
one  atom  of  hydrogen  (H)  combined  with  one  atom  of 
chlorine  (Cl),  making  one  molecule  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
If  more  than  one  atom  of  an  element  is  present  in  the 
molecule  of  a  compound,  as  in  phosphoric  acid  (H3PO4), 
a  small  subscript  is  used.  H3PO4  means  that  the 
molecule  of  phosphoric  acid  is  composed  of  three  atoms 
of  hydrogen  (H),  one  atom  of  phosphorus  (P),  and  four 
atoms  of  oxygen  (O). 

A  coefficient  placed  before  an  element  or  a  compound 
indicates  a  number  of  atoms  or  molecules.  Thus,  2  Cl 
indicates  that  two  atoms  of  chlorine  are  meant; 
5  NaCl  indicates  that  five  molecules  of  sodium  chloride, 
or  common  salt,  are  meant,  making  ten  atoms  repre- 
sented. 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  13 

Exercise.  —  Read  the  following  symbols,  telling  the 
number  of  atoms  indicated  in  each  symbol :  S,  Fe,  2  N, 
O,  H,  CO2,  7HC1,  HNO3,  P2O5,  5H3PO4,  2  NaCl, 
7MgO,  CaCO3,  4  NaCl,  A12O3. 

Note.  —  In  ordinary  composition  scientific  books  do  not  use  the 
symbol  in  place  of  the  term  which  it  represents.  In  order  to  familiar- 
ize the  learner  with  the  symbols,  we  have  hi  this  book  used  the  symbol 
alone  in  many  cases. 

Chemical  Equations.  —  Chemical  action,  or  reaction 
between  substances,  is  represented  by  equations.  If  we 
mix  iron  filings  (Fe)  and  fine  sulphur  (S)  and  then  heat 
the  mixture  in  a  spoon  over  a  hot  flame,  chemical  action 
takes  place.  The  iron  unites  with  the  sulphur,  making  a 
compound  called  iron  sulphide.  This  union  may  be  rep- 
resented thus  :  Fe  +  S  =  FeS.  It  may  be  interpreted 
one  atom  of  iron  combined  with  one  atom  of  sulphur  is 
converted  into  one  molecule  of  iron  sulphide.  The 
above  is  a  very  simple  equation.  Suppose  we  mix  the 
FeS  formed  in  the  above  experiment  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  —  we  shall  then  have  the  following  reaction : 

Iron  sulphide     Hydrochloric  acid      Iron  chloride     Hydrogen  sulphide 

FeS      +        2HC1       =     FeCl2    +          H2S 

In  this  case  one  molecule  of  FeS  is  acted  on  by  two 
molecules  of  HC1  and  is  converted  into  one  molecule 
of  FeCl2  and  one  molecule  of  H2S.  Note  that  the  sum 
of  the  atoms  before  the  sign  of  equality  is  the  same  as 
the  sum  of  the  atoms  after  the  sign ;  that  is,  we  have 
exactly  the  same  number  of  atoms,  but  arranged  in 
different  groups.  Changes  both  physical  and  chemical 
may  take  place,  but  there  is  just  the  same  amount 
of  matter  in  existence  after  as  there  was  before  the 


14  THE   ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

change.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  chemical 
equation  may  be  made  up  of  any  combination  of  ele- 
ments that  will  make  an  equation.  On  the  contrary, 
the  equation  represents  a  chemical  change  and  compar- 
atively few  chemical  changes  are  possible.  These  must 
be  determined  by  experiment. 

OXYGEN  (0) 

Description    and    Occurrence.  —  Free    oxygen    is    an 
invisible  gas.     It  makes  up  more  than  one  fifth  of  the 


Ignition 
Tube 


FIG.  i. — Preparing  Oxygen. 

air,  in  which  it  remains  uncombined  with  other  ele- 
ments. It  exists  in  combination  with  many  other  ele- 
ments. For  instance,  with  hydrogen  (H)  it  combines  to 
form  water.  By  weight  it  is  eight  ninths  of  water.  It 
forms  three  fourths  of  all  animal  bodies  and  about  one 
half  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Speaking  generally, 
oxygen  forms  about  one  half  of  all  matter. 

Preparation.  —  Although  oxygen  is  so  abundant  in 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF   PLANT   FOOD  15 

the  air,  it  is  difficult  to  separate  it  from  the  nitrogen 
with  which  it  is  thoroughly  mixed.  It  may  be  more 
easily  obtained  from  one  of  its  compounds  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat.  Mercuric  oxide  (HgO)  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose.  Put  about  a  tablespoonful  of  mercuric 
oxide  in  an  ignition  tube.  Fit  the  tube  with  a  perforated 
cork  and  a  delivery  tube  leading  underneath  a  shelf 
made  by  a  pan  (Fig.  i)  with  an  opening  in  its  side  and 
another  in  its  bottom.  Invert  the  pan  in  another  and 
deeper  pan.  Pour  in  water  till  the  bottom  of  the  small 
inverted  pan  is  covered.  Fill  a  glass  jar  with  water, 
cover  it  with  a  glass  plate,  and  invert  it  over  the  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  smaller  pan,  withdrawing  the  glass 
plate  under  water.  Now  when  the  delivery  tube  is  in 
place,  as  shown  in  Figure  i,  apply  heat  to  the  mercuric 
oxide  in  the  tube,  and  the  oxygen  will  be  separated 
from  the  mercury.  The  oxygen  passes  through  the 
delivery  tube,  and  bubbles  of  it  arising  through  the 
water  in  the  jar  displace  the  water.  This  method  of 
collecting  a  gas  is  called  collecting  over  water.  When  the 
water  is  all  displaced,  the  jar  is  full  of  oxygen  (O)  ; 
a  piece  of  glass  or  the  hand  may  be  placed  under  the 
jar  and  the  jar  placed  upright. 

The  reaction  is  represented  as  follows  : 


Another  more  common  method  of  procuring  oxygen 
for  experimental  purposes  is  to  obtain  it  from  potassium 
chlorate  (KC1O3).  Use  the  same  apparatus  as  that 
just  described.  About  one  tablespoonful  of  KC1O3 
mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  manganese  dioxide 
(MnO2)  may  be  placed  in  the  ignition  tube  and  heated 
as  before.  The  manganese  dioxide  does  not  give  up  its 


1 6  THE  ELEMENTS   OF  PLANT  FOOD 

oxygen,  but  in  some  way  not  well  understood  it  causes 
the  KC1O3  to  give  up  its  oxygen  at  a  lower  temperature. 

2  KC103  =  2  KC1  +  3  02 

By  having  jars  filled  with  water  ready  to  slip  over  the 
opening,  two  or  three  jars  of  O  may  be  obtained. 

Notes.  —  (rf)  Many  schools  are  now  equipped  with  pneumatic 
troughs  and  other  chemical  apparatus.  Where  such  is  the  case,  stu- 
dents will  not  need  to  construct  the  apparatus  here  described. 

(<£)  If  a  large  amount  of  oxygen  is  desired  for  class  use  or  for  other 
purposes,  it  is  better  to  buy  it  of  those  who  make  a  business  of  preparing 
it.  It  is  shipped  in  strong  metal  cylinders  into  which  it  has  been  com- 
pressed. 

Chemical  Properties.  —  Oxygen  is  very  active  chemi- 
cally and  combines  with  nearly  every  other  element. 
This  combination  with  other  elements  is  called  oxida- 
tion, and  the  products  of  the  action  are  called  oxides. 
Oxidation  may  take  place  rapidly,  as  in  the  burning  of 
wood  in  a  fire,  or  it  may  take  place  very  slowly,  as  in 
the  decay  of  wood,  the  rusting  of  iron,  or  the  decay  of 
the  tissues  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 

A  glowing  splinter  of  wood  thrust  into  a  jar  of  oxygen 
will  suddenly  burst  into  flame  and  burn  rapidly.  This 
is  the  common  test  for  oxygen.  The  reaction  is  ex- 
pressed : 

Carbon  +  Oxygen  Carbon  dioxide 

C  +  O2  =  CO2 

The  splinter  will  continue  to  burn  till  the  oxygen  is 
used  up  or  till  the  wood  is  entirely  consumed. 

Make  a  little  cup  in  the  end  of  a  piece  of  crayon,  wrap 
the  end  of  a  piece  of  wire  about  8  inches  in  length  about 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


the  crayon,  so  that  the  crayon  may  be  lowered  into  a 
jar.  Place  a  piece  of  sulphur  the  size  of  a  pea  in  the 
cup,  touch  it  with  a  piece  of  hot  iron  so  that  it  begins 
to  burn  in  the  air.  Lower  it  into  n 

a  jar  of  oxygen  and  note  the  beau- 
tiful blue  flame. 

Reaction :    S  +  O2  =  SO2 


Fray  out  the  end  of  a  picture 
cord  wire,  heat  the  frayed  end  to 
redness,  dip  it  quickly  into  flour 
of  sulphur,  and  then  into  a  jar  of 
O.  The  sulphur  sticking  to  the 
cord  starts  the  combustion  of  the 


FIG.  2,  —  Sulphur  burning 
in  Oxygen. 


iron  and  the  oxygen  continues  it  so  that  the  entire  cord 
may  be  burned,  producing  very  brilliant  scintillations. 

A  little  water  should  be  in  the 
jar  to  prevent  the  burning  glob- 
ules of  iron  from  melting  or 
cracking  the  glass  jar. 

Reaction :   3  Fe  +  2  O2  =  Fe3O4 

The  experiments  just  de- 
scribed illustrate  the  effects  of 
oxygen  when  unmixed  with  ni- 
trogen, but  oxygen  is  also  a  con- 
stantly active  agent  in  all  the 
processes  of  life  and  decay  when  found  diluted  with  N 
in  air. 

Since  the  action  is  on  vegetable  or  animal  matter 
composed  principally  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  oxidation  are  largely  carbon  dioxide  (CO2) 
and  water  (H20). 

M.  &  H.  AG.  —  2 


FIG.  3. 


—  Wire  burning  in 
Oxygen. 


i8 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


Note.  —  Ozone  is  a  more  active  form  of  oxygen  than  oro!inary 
oxygen.  The  ordinary  form  of  oxygen  has  two  atoms  in  each  mole- 
cule, being  expressed  as  O2,  while  ozone  is  expressed  O3.  Ozone 
is  formed  by  the  discharge  of  an  electric  machine  in  the  presence  of 
moisture ;  it  can  be  detected  by  its  pungent  odor.  It  is  formed  in 
large  quantities  by  lightning  flashes.  This  peculiar  form  of  oxygen  is 
one  of  the  most  powerful  oxidizing  agents  known.  It  is  present  in 
pure  country  air  and  is  absent  in  the  atmosphere  in  and  about  large 
cities.  There  is  probably  so  much  of  impurity  in  the  air  of  the  city 
that  the  ozone  gives  up  one  of  its  atoms  in  the  oxidizing  process  and  is 
thus  transformed  into  O2,  or  ordinary  oxygen.  The  bleaching  of 
clothes  laid  out  on  the  grass  is  probably  hastened  by  the  ozone  in  the 
air.  Putrid  meat  thrust  into  a  jar  of  ozone  very  soon  loses  its  bad 
odor,  because  of  the  activity  of  this  gas. 

HYDROGEN  (H) 

Description  and  Occurrence.  —  Hydrogen  is  the 
lightest  substance  known,  being  one  sixteenth  as  heavy 


Thistle 
Tlibe 


FIG.  4.  —  Preparing  Hydrogen. 


as  O  and  two  twenty-ninths  as  heavy  as  air.     On  account 
of  its  lightness  H  is  used  for  inflating  small  balloons. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


Large  balloons  are  inflated  with  illuminating  gas,  which 
contains  much  H. 

Hydrogen  is  odorless,  colorless,  and  tasteless.  Al- 
though it  is  not  found  free  in  any  considerable  quanti- 
ties, in  compounds  it  is  very  abundant.  It  is  pres- 
ent in  water  (H2O),  in  all  the  oils, 
and  in  all  vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances. 

Preparation.  —  Fit  a  bottle  with 
a  stopper  having  two  perforations, 
one  for  the  delivery  tube  and  one 
for  a  thistle  tube  to  conduct  liquids 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  No 
heat  is  required.  In  the  bottom  of 
the  bottle  put  a  small  quantity  of 
chips  or  filings  of  zinc.  Pour  diluted 
hydrochloric  acid  in  the  thistle  tube 
till  the  zinc  is  covered  with  about 
one  half  inch  of  it.  As  soon  as  action  commences, 
which  may  be  noted  as  a  kind  of  boiling  and  the 
formation  of  many  bubbles,  the  gas  may  be  collected 
over  water. 

Reaction:  Zn  +  2  HC1  =  ZnCl2  +  H2 

Notes.  —  As  H  is  very  light,  it  will  escape  when  the  jars  are 
placed  in  an  upright  position  unless  they  are  covered  tight  or  left 
inverted.  Throw  away  the  first  jar  of  H  obtained,  as  it  may  have 
air  mixed  with  it,  which  makes  it  explosive.  The  second  jar  may  be 
tested  by  placing  a  lighted  match  at  the  mouth  of  the  jar. 

As  H  is  lighter  than  air,  it  may  be  collected  by  upward  displace- 
ment. Take  the  delivery  tube  out  of  the  water  and  thrust  its  open 
end  into  a  test  tube  held  in  an  upright  position  with  its  mouth  held 
downward.  The  H  will  soon  drive  out  the  air  and  may  be  burned 
as  before. 


FIG.  5.  —  Collecting  Hy- 
drogen by  Upward 
Displacement. 


20 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


The  H  will  burn  quietly  as  it  escapes,  or  it  may 
explode  with  a  harmless  puff.  In  either  case  water 
is  formed  (2  H2  +  O2  =  2  H2O). 

Chemical  Properties.  —  Hydrogen  will  not  combine 
with  all  other  elements.  It  combines  readily  with  O 
and  has  a  strong  affinity  for  chlorine  (Cl).  In  direct 
sunlight  H  unites  with  Cl  with  explosive  violence, 
in  diffused  light  quietly,  and  in  darkness  not  at  all. 
When  the  combination  takes  place,  hydrochloric  acid 
(HC1)  is  formed.  Burning  H  produces  one  of  the 
hottest  flames  known. 


NITROGEN  (N) 

Description  and  Occurrence.  —  Free  nitrogen  is  a 
colorless,  odorless  gas.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents 
of  air,  forming  four  fifths  of  it.  It  is  very  unlike  oxygen. 
O  is  active,  N  is  inert.  N  hinders  the  activity  of  O. 
O  sustains  life,  free  N  has  no  physiological  effect.  O 

combines  with  most  ele- 
ments, N  combines  with 
very  few.  Nitrogen  in 
combination  with  other 
elements  is  found  in  niter 
(saltpeter),  from  which  it 
gets  its  name,  and  other 
nitrates.  It  is  found 
also  in  ammonia,  in  flesh, 
in  hair,  and  in  all  vege- 
tables and  grains. 
FIG.  6.  —  Preparing  Nitrogen.  Preparation.  —  The 

air  contains  the  two  elements  O  and  N  free,  and  an  easy 
way  to  obtain  the  N  is  to  remove  O  from  the  air;   this 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  21 

can  be  done  by  causing  it  to  oxidize   some   substance 
with  which  it  will  readily  combine. 

The  usual  method  is  to  place  a  small  piece  of  phos- 
phorus on  a  large  flat  cork,  float  the  cork  on  water,  and 
cover  it  with  a  jar.  The  phosphorus  uniting  readily 
with  the  oxygen  in  the  jar  leaves  the  N  with  some  fumes 
of  a  compound  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen.  These 
fumes  will  soon  be  absorbed  by  the  water,  leaving  the 
N  comparatively  pure. 

Notes.  —  As  the  oxygen  is  combined  with  phosphorus,  water  rises 
and  fills  the  space  left  vacant  —  about  one  fifth  of  the  jar.  This  shows 
the  volume  of  O  to  be  about  one  fifth  and  N  to  be  about  four  fifths 
of  the  ah-. 

A  piece  of  burning  candle  may  be  placed  on  the  cork  instead  of  the 
phosphorus.  The  product  of  the  combustion  is  CO2.  If  now  the 
mixture  be  collected  over  lime  water,  the  COa  will  be  removed  and 
the  N  will  remain  nearly  pure. 

Chemical  Properties.  --The  chief  characteristic  of  N 
is  its  inertness.  The  difference  between  O  and  N  in 
this  regard  may  be  shown  by  placing  a  jar  of  O  and  a 
jar  of  N  near  each  other  and  rapidly  passing  a  lighted 
candle  from  one  jar  to  the  other.  The  N  will  put  out 
or  diminish  the  flame,  and  the  O  will  relight  it  from  a 
spark  remaining  on  the  wick.  This  may  be  repeated  a 
number  of  times.  Although  four  fifths  of  the  air  we 
take  into  our  lungs  is  N,  we  get  none  of  the  N  that 
is  in  our  bodies  from  this  source.  The  N  that  we 
obtain  comes  through  the  food  that  we  eat. 

Plants  are  surrounded  with  air  that  contains  the  N, 
but  most  plants  appropriate  little  or  none  of  the  free 
N.  They  obtain  their  supply  of  N  through  their  roots 
in  the  form  of  nitrates  in  solution. 


22  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Nitric  acid,  HNO3.  --This  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant and  one  of  the  most  powerful  acids.  It  was 
formerly  called  aqua  fortis,  meaning  strong  water,  on 
account  of  its  caustic  action.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  get  any  of  this  acid  on  the  hands  or  on  the 
clothing.  When  pure,  nitric  acid  is  colorless,  but  it 
is  usually  slightly  tinted  with  brownish  oxides.  Put 
one  or  two  drops  in  a  glass  of  water,  place  a  drop  of 
the  mixture  on  the  tongue  and  note  the  sour  taste. 

It  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent  and  one  of  the  most 
corrosive  substances  known.  It  colors  animal  and 
vegetable  tissues  containing  N  (such  as  silk  and  skin) 
yellow  and  changes  some  substances  that  contain  no 
N  into  highly  explosive  substances,  such  as  gun  cotton 
and  nitroglycerin. 

Nitric  acid  is  formed  in  considerable  quantities  by 
the  electric  discharges  in  thunder  storms.  Nitric  acid 
is  also  formed  in  the  soil  under  favorable  conditions, 
certain  bacterial  ferments  being  active  in  producing 
it.  This  acid  combines  so  readily  with  minerals  in  the 
soil  that  it  exists  as  acid  but  a  short  time. 

Note.  —  HNO8  is  prepared  by  heating  a  mixture  of  sodium  ni- 
trate (NaNO3)  and  sulphuric  acid  (HL,SO4).  The  fumes  that  arise  are 
conducted  into  a  retort  and  there  condensed  by  cooling. 

NaNO3  +  H2SO4  =  NaHSO4  +  HNO3. 

Nature  of  Acids. --The  description  given  of  nitric 
acid  will  apply  largely  to  all  acids,  though  they  are  not 
all  equally  powerful,  and  not  all  are  liquids.  All  acids 
contain  H.  Not  every  compound,  however,  that 
contains  H  is  an  acid.  Most  acids  have  a  sour  taste, 
and  everything  that  has  a  sour  taste  is  an  acid  or  con- 
tains acid.  The  sour  taste  of  a  lemon  is  due  to  the 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  23 

presence  of  citric  acid,  that  of  sour  milk  to  lactic  acid, 
and  that  of  vinegar  to  acetic  acid.  Acids  will  change 
blue  litmus  paper  to  red.  This  is  the  most  common 
test  for  an  acid. 

There  are  fourjvreiy  common  acids  with  which  stu- 
dents should  become  familiar : 

Sulphuric  acid  (H^SCX) 
Nitric  acid  (HNO3) 
Hydrochloric  acid  (HC1) 
Carbonic  acid  (H2CO3) 

Note.  —  Litmus  paper  is  made  by  staining  unsized  paper  with  lit- 
mus solution.  Litmus  is  made  from  certain  lichens.  A  substitute  for 
litmus  paper  may  be  made  by  boiling  red  cabbage  leaves  and  soaking 
unsized  paper  in  the  liquid.  A  strong  acid  will  turn  any  dark-colored 
vegetable  matter  red.  (A  little  book  of  blue  litmus  may  be  obtained 
at  any  drug  store  for  a  few  cents.) 

Ammonia  (NH3). — Ammonia  ^xists  m  small  quan- 
tities in  the  air  and  is  brought  down  to  the  earth  in  the 
rain  and  snow.  When  we  open  a  bottle  of  aqua 
ammonia  bought  at  the  drug  store,  a  gas  escapes  that 
has  a  most  pungent  odor.  This  gas  is  ammonia  (NH3). 
The  liquid  in  the  bottle  is  aqua  ammonia.  It  is  water 
combined  with  ammonia,  and  thus  charged,  it  is  put 
up  as  an  article  of  commerce. 

Ammonia  is  formed  in  all  decaying  animal  bodies, 
in  manure  and  urine,  and  in  decaying  vegetable  matter 
in  the  soil.  NH3  may  be  smelled  about  manure  heaps, 
in  horse  stables  or  cow  barns.  It  escapes  very  easily 
into  the  air  and  is  lost.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  fertilizing 
substances  in  manure,  ~hence  its  -escape  into  the  air 
should  be  prevented  as  far  as  possible. 

The   ammonia   of   commerce   is   obtained    as    a   by- 


24  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

product  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas  in  the 
cities.  Ammonia  combined  with  water  represents  a  great 
class  of  compounds,  called  bases,  that  are  the  opposite 
of  the  acids. 

Nature  of  a  Base.  —  A  base  is  a  compound  contain- 
ing O  and  H,  that  turns  red  litmus  blue,  and  neutralizes 
an  acid. 

All  acids  contain  H.     All  bases  contain  the  hydroxyl 

"  radical  OH.     Acids  turn  blue  litmus  red,  bases  turn  red 

p  litmus  blue.     Acids  and  bases  mixed  together  destroy 

the  essential  characteristics  of  each  other  and   form    a 

new  substance,  called  a  salt,  and  water. 

An  alkali  is  a  base  that  is  soluble  in  water,  combines 
with  fats  to  form  soaps,  and  has  a  caustic  action  on 
animal  and  vegetable  tissues. 

Ammonium    hydroxide    is    a    good    illustration    of 
an  alkali. 
^    Some  of  the  important  bases  are : 

Ammonia  (NHs),  when  combined  with  water  (NH4OH) 
and  then  called  ammonium  hydroxide;  potassium  hy- 
droxide (KOH) ;  (caustic  soda)  sodium  hydrate  (NaOH) ; 
(lime)  calcium  oxide  (CaO)  or  with  water  (CaOH2). 

Test  a  small  quantity  of  dilute  nitric  acid  (HN03) 
by  dipping  in  it  a  strip  of  .blue  litmus  paper.  Note 
that  the  blue  color  is  turned  to  a  bright  red.  This  is 
the  acid  test.  Pour  into  a  dish  a  few  drops  of  ammonia 
and  water  (NH4OH).  Let  the  part  of  the  litmus  paper 
that  has  been  turned  red  by  the  acid  touch  the  ammonia. 
Note  that  the  red  is  turned  back  to  the  original  blue 
color  by  the  alkali.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  into 
the  nitric  acid  and  test  again  with  the  blue  litmus 
paper.  If  it  still  turns  the  litmus  red,  continue  adding 
NH4OH  to  the  acid  and  testing  with  litmus  till  a  mix- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  25 

ture  is  obtained  that  has  no  effect  on  the  blue  litmus. 
The  acid  is  then  said  to  be  neutralized.  It  is  also  true 
that  the  alkali  has  been  neutralized  by  the  acid.  The 
reaction  may  be  expressed  : 

Acid         +  Base     =         Salt         +      Water 

HN03       +        NH4OH  =    NH4N03     +     H2O 

If,  now,  the  water  is  evaporated,  the  salt,  ammonium 
nitrate,  (NH4NO3),  will  remain  as  white  crystals. 

Note-  —  If  by  accident  acid  of  any  kind  gets  on  the  clothes  and 
turns  them  red  in  spots,  the  color  may  sometimes  be  restored  by 
touching  the  spots  with  ammonia. 

Nature  of  Salts.  —  Salts  affect  neither  blue  nor  red 
litmus;  they  are  produced  when  acids  and  bases  are 
combined. 

Sodium  chloride  (NaCl),  or  common  salt,  is  the  salt 
with  which  we  are  most  acquainted. 

By  combining  the  bases  listed  above  with  nitric 
acid  the  following  salts  are  formed :  ammonium 
nitrate  (NH4NO3) ;  potassium  nitrate  (KNO3) ;  sodium 
nitrate  (NaNO3) ;  calcium  nitrate  (Ca(NO3)2).  Write 
all  the  reactions  for  the  above. 

Note.  —  It  may  be  thought  peculiar  that  NH4OH  is  not  written 
NH5O.  NH4  is  called  a  radical.  OH  is  also  a  radical.  A  radical  is 
a  combination  of  elements  that  hang  together  so  that  they  act  as  a  single 
element.  Although  it  would  not  be  wrong  to  write  it  NH5O,  it  is  easier 
in  writing  reactions  to  keep  it  in  the  form  given.  NH4  unites  with 
OH  just  as  K  unites  with  OH.  Other  important  radicals  are : 

The  nitrate  radical,  NO3,  as  in  potassium  nitrate,  KNO3. 
The  sulphate  radical,  SO4,  as  in  sulphuric  acid,  H2SO4. 
The  phosphate  radical,  PO4,  as  in  phosphoric  acid,  H3PO4. 
The  silicate  radical,  SiO3,  as  in  silicic  acid,  H2SiO3. 
The  chlorate  radical,  C1O3,  as  in  potassium  chlorate,  KC1O8. 


26  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Sulphuric  acid,  H2SO4,  uniting  with  the  bases  pro- 
duces the  salts  called  sulphates.  Write  the  reaction 
for  forming  the  following  salts :  potassium  sulphate 
(K2SO4),  sodium  sulphate  (Na2SO4),  and  calcium  sul- 
phate (CaSO4). 

Hydrochloric  acid  (HC1)  will  produce  salts,  called 
chlorides,  when  combined  with  bases. 

Write  reactions  and  give  names  for  NH4C1,  KC1, 
NaCl,  and  CaCl2. 

Note.  —  The  following  word  endings  and  prefixes  may  aid  stu- 
dents in  understanding  some  chemical  terms  : 

The  ending  ic  means  ordinary  or  common,  as  PC1S  is  phosphor/V 
chloride  and  HNO3  is  nitr/V  acid. 

The  ending  ous  means  less,  PC13,  phosphorous  chloride,  means  less 
of  the  chlorine  than  in  phosphor/V  chloride,  and  HNO2,  mtrous  acid, 
less  of  the  oxygen  than  in  nitr/V  acid. 

The  prefix  hydro  means  hydrogen  and  no  oxygen,  as  in  HC1,  hydro- 
chloric acid. 

The  ending  ide  is  used  for  compounds  made  up  of  but  two  elements 
or  one  element  and  a  radical,  as  in  NaCl,  sodium  chloride,  and  KOH, 
potassium  hydroxide.  Hydro-ic  acids  yield  salts  ending  in  ide,  other 
ic  acids  yield  ate  salts,  and  ous  acids  yield  ite  salts. 

Protein 

Crude  Protein.  -  -  The  nitrogenous  organic  com- 
pounds of  plant  and  animal  life  are  very  complex,  and 
the  terms  used  in  describing  them  have  been  very 
loosely  applied.  Crude  protein  is  the  term  used  to  in- 
clude all  the  nitrogenous  matter  in  foods;  of  these  sub- 
stances the  proteins  are  the  most  valuable. 

Proteins  are  compounds  of  nitrogen  with  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  sulphur.  The  exact  formula  has 
not  been  determined  in  every  case.  The  proteins  con- 
tain about  16  per  cent  of  N  and  less  than  2  per  cent 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  27 

of   S.     The  most    familiar  forms  of   the    proteins    are 
albumins,  casein,  fibrin,  gluten. 

Albumins  are  easily  coagulated  by  heat.  The  most 
familiar  albumin  is  that  of  the  white  of  an  egg.  It 
also  exists  in  the  blood  and  tissues  of  animals,  and  in 
grains  and  vegetables.  Being  soluble  in  water,  it  may 
be  extracted  from  vegetables  and  meats  by  soaking  in 
water.  Much  valuable  food  may  be  lost  by  improper 
cooking.  Hot  water  will  coagulate  the  albumin  and 
it  will  then  remain  in  the  article  cooked,  whereas  cold 
water  will  dissolve  and  extract  the  albumin. 

Casein  represents  a  class  of  proteins  found  in  milk. 
A  similar  substance  is  called  vegetable  casein  which 
is  found  in  plants  and  may  be  extracted  from  some 
of  them.  Casein  is  not  coagulated  by  heat,  but  is 
coagulated  by  acids  and  ferments,  chief  of  which  for: 
practical  purposes  is  the  acid  and  ferment  obtained 
from  the  inner  surface  of  a  calf's  stomach,  called  rennet. 
The  coagulation  of  casein,  or  the  making  of  curd,  is  one 
of  the  necessary  steps  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese. 

Fibrin  makes  up  the  larger  part  of  the  fibrous  portion 
of  lean  meat  or  muscle.  In  its  soluble  form  it  is  found 
in  the  blood. 

Gluten  forms  one  of  the  most  important  nitrogenous 
food  substances  found  in  grains.  It  is  present  in  wheat 
and  it  is  this  which  forms  the  sticky  part  of  dough  when 
it  is  kneaded.  A  gum  of  gluten  may  be  easily  made  by 
chewing  wheat  for  a  few  minutes.  The  saliva  dis- 
solves the  starch  and  the  gluten  remains  as  a  light- 
colored  gum. 

Note.  —  Gluten  is  made  up  of  two  substances,  glutenin  and  gliadin. 
Gliadin  is  the  substance  that  sticks  together  the  flour  particles,  glutenin 
is  a  grayish  substance  that  is  held  together  to  make  up  the  gluten.  The 


28  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

difference  between  the  soft,  or  winter,  wheats  and  the  hard,  or  spring, 
wheats  is  due  to  the  varying  proportion  of  these  substances  in  the 
gluten.  A  larger  proportion  of  gliadin  makes  a  soft  wheat. 

Alkaloids  make  up  another  class  of  nitrogenous 
compounds  that  are  sometimes  called  the  active  prin- 
ciples of  plants  because  of  their  active  effects  when 
taken  into  the  body.  Many  of  the  alkaloids  are  used 
in  medicine  and  most  of  them  are  poisonous.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  most  common  alkaloids : 

From  Peruvian  bark Quinine 

From  tobacco Nicotine 

From  coca  leaves Cocaine 

From  white  poppy  pods Morphine 

From  black  pepper Piperine 

From  nux  vomica Strychnine 

^     CARBON  (C) 

Description  and  Occurrence. — The  elements  hereto- 
fore considered  in  their  uncombined  state  are  in  the 
form  of  gases.  Carbon,  however,  as  found  free  in  na- 
ture is  a  solid.  In  its  free  or  natural  state  it  may  exist 
as  a  diamond,  which  is  a  crystalline  form  of  carbon, 
and  graphite,  which  is  found  in  the  crystalline  and  non- 
crystalline  forms. 

When  combined  with  oxygen  it  forms  carbon  dioxide, 
CO;>,  a  constituent  of  the  air  on  which  all  vegetable 
life  feeds.  All  vegetable  and  animal  bodies  contain  C, 
and  when  these  bodies  are  heated  with  an  insufficient 
supply  of  O  another  form  of  non-crystalline  carbon  is 
formed ;  namely,  charcoal.  Combined  with  H,  and 
also  free,  carbon  occurs  in  coal,  petroleum,  and  the 
many  forms  and  products  of  these  substances.  United 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  29 

with  oxygen  and  calcium  or  magnesium,  it  appears  as 
limestone,  marble,  and  dolomite. 

Notes.  —  Diamonds  are  usually  found  in  the  form  of  rounded  peb- 
bles. These  are  cut  into  desirable  forms  by  pressing  the  stone  against 
a  revolving  wheel  covered  with  a  mixture  of  diamond  dust  and  oil. 
Carbon  in  this  form  is  the  hardest  known  substance  except  carborun- 
dum. This  quality,  combined  with  its  brilliance  and  its  rarity,  makes 
it  the  most  precious  of  gems. 

Graphite  is  used  in  making  lead  pencils,  stove  polish,  electric  light 
carbons,  axle  grease,  and  crucibles.  It  is  often  called  plumbago. 

Charcoal.  —  Charcoal  is  made  by  heating  wood  with 
a  small  supply  of  O.  It  is  made  in  large  quanti- 
ties by  piling  up  sticks  of  wood  in  a  heap  around 
a  central  flue,  covering  the  wood  with  earth,  leaving 
a  hole  at  the  top  for  a  flue  and  small  holes  at  the  bottom 
to  admit  a  quantity  of  O  to  commence  the  combustion. 
After  the  wood  is  kindled,  the  holes  at  the  bottom  may 
be  closed  so  as  to  regulate  the  supply  of  O  entering  the 
kiln.  When  the  process  is  complete,  the  charcoal  is 
in  the  form  of  the  sticks  that  were  put  in,  but  its  char- 
acter and  its  color  are  considerably  different.  It  is 
very  porous  and  has  the  power  of  absorbing  gases  to  a  re- 
markable degree.  Beechwood  charcoal  has  been  known 
to  absorb  170  times  its  own  volume  of  dry  ammonia. 

It  is  this  property  of  absorption  that  gives  charcoal 
its  value  as  a  purifier  and  deodorizer.  Oxygen  being 
held  in  the  pores  of  the  charcoal  in  a  condensed  form, 
any  offensive  gas  absorbed  by  the  charcoal  is  brought 
into  contact  with  its  condensed  oxygen,  whereupon 
the  impurity  is  oxidized.  This  process  may  be  con- 
tinued for  a  considerable  time.  When  the  charcoal 
gets  full  of  the  impurities,  it  may  be  restored  to  its 
former  condition  by  reburning. 


30  THE   ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Carbon    Dioxide    (CO2). — This    substance    is    often 
called  carbonic  acid  gas.     It  is  one  of  the  constituents 


FIG.  7.  — Making  Charcoal. 

of  air,  of  which  it  forms  about  four  parts  in  ten  thousand. 
It  occurs  combined  in  all  carbonates,  the  most  abundant 
of  which  is  limestone  (CaCO3).  Millions  of  tons  of 
CO->  are  thrown  into  the  air  yearly  by  the  burning  of 
carbonaceous  matter,  the  breathing  of  animals,  by 
fermentation,  and  by  the  decay  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter.  Almost  any  acid  will  act  on  any  carbonate 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  31 

and  liberate  CO2.  Carbonate  of  lime  (CaCO3)  may  be 
treated  with  HC1  to  obtain  CO2  for  laboratory  nse. 
The  reaction  is : 

CaCO3  +  2  HC1  =  CaCl2  +  H2CO3 
H2CO3  =  H2O  +  CO2 

In  this  case  carbonic  acid  is  formed,  but  is  so  unsta- 
ble that  it  immediately  breaks  up  into  H2O  and  CO2. 
Since  CO2  is  heavier  than  air,  it  may  be  collected  by 
pouring  as  one  would  a  liquid.  If  care  be  used,  it  may 
be  transferred  from  one  vessel  to  another  in  this  way. 

Note. — The  gas  produced  in  fermented  liquors  and  that  which 
causes  bread  to  rise  is  CO2.  Yeast  is  an  active  ferment  which  when 
mixed  with  flour  and  water  under  proper  conditions  produces  CO2. 
This  gas  makes  the  bread  light  by  forming  little  bubbles  throughout  the 
mass  of  the  dough  till  the  baking  hardens  the  dough  so  that  it  retains 
the  little  spaces. 

The  gas  in  soda  water  is  CO2.  It  gives  a  sharp,  prickly 
taste  to  carbonated  water  and  a  pungent  sensation  in 
the  nose  as  it  escapes. 

COo  is  not  a  supporter  of  combustion.  Test  this 
property  by  putting  a  lighted  splinter  or  match  into 
a  jar  of  the  gas,  and  note  how  quickly  it  is  extin- 
guished. 

CO2  sometimes  accumulates  at  the  bottom  of  a  well, 
a  cistern,  or  a  silo.  Before  going  down  into  such  a 
place,  one  should  lower  a  lighted  lantern  or  candle.  If 
the  light  is  extinguished,  there  is  sufficient  CO2  present 
to  suffocate  any  one  going  into  it. 

The  limewater  test  is  the  usual  one  for  CO2.  Pour 
into  a  glass  or  test  tube  some  clear  limewater,  Ca(OH)2. 
Through  a  straw  or  glass  tube  blow  into  the  limewater 


32  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

till  it  turns  a  milky  white,  calcium  carbonate  having 
been  thus  produced  by  the  CO2  in  the  breath.  The 
reaction  is : 

Ca(OH)2  +  CO2  =  CaCO3  +  H20 

The  decomposition  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  the 
soil  forms  CO2.  This  uniting  with  H2O  forms  a  weak 
acid,  carbonic  acid,  CO2  +  H2O  =  H2COa.  This  weak 
acid  acts  on  the  minerals  in  the  soil  and  renders 
the  plant  food  bound  up  in  them  available.  The 
minerals  dissolved  by  this  acid  are  much  greater  than 
would  be  dissolved  by  pure  water,  and  since  the  for- 
mation of  carbonic  acid  is  continuous,  the  amount  of 
mineral  matter  made  available  is  very  great  in  the 
aggregate.  The  carbonic  acid  combines  readily  with 
certain  bases  to  form  compounds  beneficial  to  plant 
growth. 

The  most  important  use  of  CO2  is  its  direct  use  as 
food  for  plants.  All  green  vegetation  is  feeding  on 
the  CO2  and  building  up  carbonaceous  tissue.  This 
feeding  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  green  matter 
(chlorophyll)  in  vegetation  under  the  influence  of  sun- 
light. CO2  breaks  up;  O  is  thrown  out  into  the  air 
and  C  is  combined  with  H2O  to  make  some  of  the  or- 
ganic compounds,  such  as  starch,  sugar,  and  woody 
fiber. 

The  food  of  man  and  other  animals  comes  directly 
or  indirectly  from  plants.  Much  of  the  food  thus  taken 
is  oxidized  in  the  blood  and  tissues,  and  CO2  is  formed 
and  again  returned  to  the  air.  Thus  the  cycle  of 
changes  continues,  and  the  amount  of  CO2  in  the  air  is 
held  unchanged  in  amount. 

Humus.  —  Animal    and    vegetable    matter    in    soil 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  33 

partly  decayed,  or  oxidized,  is  called  humus.  Organic 
matter  in  the  soil  is  not  properly  called  humus  till  it 
has  passed  the  most  active  stage  of  decomposition  and 
has  lost  the  physical  structure  of  the  substances  from 
which  it  is  made.  It  has  a  dark  color  and  partakes  of 
many  of  the  properties  of  charcoal.  New  soils  gener- 
ally have  an  abundance  of  carbonaceous  matter,  but 
by  constant  cropping  and  failure  to  add  manure  or  to 
turn  under  green  crops  this  carbonaceous  matter  be- 
comes exhausted.  Although  it  is  true  that  plants  can- 
not take  it  through  their  roots,  yet  the  carbonaceous 
matter  mellows  the  soil,  and  absorbs  and  holds  am- 
monia gas  so  that  it  may  be  acted  on  chemically,  and 
nitrates  may  be  formed  that  may  be  taken  in  by  the 
rootlets  as  plant  food.  The  presence  of  carbonaceous 
matter  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  providing  a  means 
of  making  other  plant  food  available  for  the  use  of  the 
plant.  It  also  encourages  bacterial  growth  of  certain 
kinds  that  are  essential  in  the  preparation  of  plant  foods. 

Note.  —  Carbon  monoxide  (CO)  is  very  poisonous.  The  pres- 
ence of  CO  is  shown  by  the  blue  flame  over  a  fire  of  coke  or  hard 
coal.  It  is  formed  by  the  red-hot  coals  taking  from  CO2  one  of  its 
atoms  of  O.  This  gas  has  a  direct  poisonous  effect  when  it  escapes 
into  a  room,  often  causing  death.  It  is  also  present  in  the  illuminating 
gas  furnished  by  cities. 

Some  Hydrocarbons  and  Derivatives. --The  com- 
pounds of  hydrogen  and  carbon  without  O  are  called 
hydrocarbons.  The  number  of  such  carbohydrates  is 
very  great.  They  exist  in  nature  as  the  constituents 
of  petroleum,  natural  gas,  and  asphalts.  They  may  be 
formed  by  the  heating  of  carbon  compounds  without 
the  free  mixture  of  O,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  charcoal 
and  illuminating  gas. 

M.  &  H.  AG.  —  3 


34  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Carbohydrates.  —  Carbohydrates  differ  from  hy- 
drocarbons in  that  all  of  them  contain  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  in  the  proportion  to  form  water: 

Glucose  C6H12O6  =  6  C  +  6  (H2O) 

Cane  sugar     Ci2H22On  =  1 2  C  +  1 1  (H2O) 

The  most  familiar  carbohydrates  are  the  sugars, 
cellulose,  starch,  and  gums. 

Glucoses  (CeH^Oe)  are  the  simplest  forms  of  sugar. 
They  are  also  called  grape  sugar  and  dextrose.  They 
are  found  in  all  fruits,  in  honey,  and  in  the  liver.  Com- 
mercial glucose  is  made  from  corn  starch  in  large 
quantities  in  the  United  States  and  from  potato  starch 
in  Germany.  It  is  made  by  boiling  the  starch  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  is  removed  by  treating 
with  lime  and  filtering.  Glucose  in  this  form  is  sold 
under  various  names,  such  as  corn  sirup,  golden  drip, 
and  silver  drip.  If  the  sirup  is  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness,  crystals  are  formed  that  resemble  cane  sugar,  but 
they  have  less  sweetening  power  than  cane  sugar. 
The  solid  glucose  is  sold  under  the  name  of  grape  sugar. 

Note.  —  Many  candies  and  some  grades  of  brown  sugar  are  some- 
times made  of  glucose  or  grape  sugar.  The  comparatively  low  price 
of  cane  sugar  and  the  strict  enforcement  of  state  and  national  pure  food 
laws  have  stopped  the  practice  to  a  great  extent. 

Sucrose  (Ci2H22On)  is  the  sugar  that  is  meant  when 
the  word  sugar  with  no  qualifying  adjective  is  used. 
This  well-known  form  of  sugar  is  found  in  a  great 
number  of  fruits,  vegetables,  nuts,  trees,  and  in 
honey.  The  chief  sources  of  commercial  sugar  are 
sugar  cane  and  sugar  beets.  First,  the  juice  is  extracted 
by  machinery,  and  is  neutralized  with  lime.  Second, 
this  juice  is  evaporated  till  a  thick  sirup  remains. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  35 

Third,  the  sirup  is  clarified  by  filters  of  bone  black. 
The  sirup  is  now  clear  and  colorless.  Fourth,  the 
sirup  is  evaporated.  To  make  the  evaporation  more 
complete  without  changing  any  of  the  sugar  to  glucose, 
this  process  is  carried  on  in  vacuum  pans.  This  al- 
lows boiling  to  take  place  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  in  the  open  air.  Some  sugar  crystals  are  formed, 
but  the  product  has  much  sirup  still  remaining.  Fifth, 
the  crystals  are  separated  from  the  sirup  by  being 
rapidly  whirled  in  cone-shaped  sieves,  called  centrifu- 
gals. The  mother  liquor  not  crystallizing  is  molasses. 

Granulated  sugar,  then,  is  a  pure  crystallized  car- 
bohydrate commercially  produced  from  sugar  cane  or 
from  sugar  beets.  If  the  crystals  are  dried  in  cubical 
molds,  it  is  called  loaf  sugar. 

If  the  juices  after  treatment  with  lime  are  heated 
and  a  portion  of  the  water  evaporated  to  a  certain 
point,  a  sirup  is  obtained  which  when  cooled  turns 
into  sugar  called  brown  sugar. 

Maple  sugar  is  a  sucrose  with  a  distinctive  flavor 
derived  from  some  of  the  other  ingredients  in  the  sap 
of  the  maple  tree. 

Sugar  of  Milk,  Lactose,  CioH^Oii  +  H2O.  This 
sugar  is  found  in  the  milk  of  all  milk-giving  animals. 
It  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  The 
casein  is  separated  *from  the  milk  by  means  of  rennet. 
The  sugar  of  milk  remains  in  the  whey  and  may  be 
separated  by  evaporation  and  purified  by  recrystalliza- 
tion.  The  crystallized  product  is  used  as  a  container 
for  medicines.  It  is  not  so  sweet  as  cane  sugar.  Sugar 
of  milk  constitutes  about  five  per  cent  of  cow's  milk. 
The  souring  of  milk  is  caused  by  the  fermentation  of 
sugar  of  milk  forming  lactic  acid. 


36  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Cellulose  (C6Hi0O5)n.  The  n  in  this  formula  stands 
for  an  indefinite  number  of  multiples  of  the  radical  ex- 
pressed. The  molecule  may  contain  twenty  or  it 
may  contain  two  hundred  times  the  number  of  atoms 
given  in  the  formula.  The  chemical  analysis  may 
show  the  same  elements  with  the  proportions  as  given, 
but  the  substances  may  be  very  different  in  appearance 
and  may  vary  by  the  different  ways  in  which  these 
elements  come  together,  as  well  as  in  the  number  of 
atoms  in  the  molecule. 

Cellulose  is  found  in  every  part  of  every  plant.  The 
coarse  wood  of  all  trees  and  the  tender  shoots  of  the 
most  delicate  plants  contain  cellulose.  It  constitutes 
the  outer  wall  of  vegetable  cells  and  is  therefore  an 
essential  part  of  all  plants.  Cotton,  hemp,  and  flax 
fibers  consist  almost  entirely  of  cellulose. 

Cellulose  may  be  dissolved  in  sulphuric  or  other  acid. 
If,  then,  the  solution  is  heated  under  pressure,  part  of 
the  cellulose  is  changed  into  glucose.  Thus  it  is  apparent 
that  glucose  may  be  made  of  sawdust,  rags,  and  paper. 

Note.  —  Paper  in  its  many  forms  consists  largely  of  cellulose.  It 
may  be  made  from  wood,  rags,  and  straw.  Whatever  substance  is 
used,  it  is  first  finely  divided  or  pulverized  and  boiled  in  a  weak  alkali. 
This  pulp  mixed  with  water  is  poured  over  a  steadily  moving  wire 
cloth.  The  water  passes  through  the  cloth,  leaving  the  sheet  of  pulp, 
which,  gradually  drying,  is  passed  over  the  drying  cylinders,  and  is 
then  finished  as  desired. 

Starch  (CeHioOs),,  is  found  in  grains  of  all  kinds,  and 
it  forms  the  largest  part  of  the  solid  matter  of  many 
vegetables.  Starch  is  produced  in  the  leaves  of  all  green 
plants  during  growth  and  is  deposited  and  stored  in  the 
roots,  stems,  and  seeds  or  fruits.  The  starch  of  com- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


37 


FIG.  8.  —  Granules  of  Po- 
tato Starch. 


'•^ 


merce  is  obtained  from  potatoes  and  from  corn.     It  is 
made    up   of    small    grains   which, 
when    seen  under  the   microscope, 
show  each  grain  to  be  made  up  of 
concentric  rings  with  the  nucleus  at 

one    side.     These 

grains      when 

heated     in    water 

nearly  to  the  boil- 

ing  point  form  a 

pasty    mass.     This    is  caused    by  the 

swelling   and    bursting   of   the   starch 

grains.  Fine  white  flour  contains  about 
74  per  cent  of  starch,  rice  contains  about  79  per  cent, 
and  potatoes  about  16  per  cent. 

Note.  —  The  presence  of  starch  in  solution  may  be  shown  by  the 
iodine  test.  Dissolve  a  few  grains  of  iodine  in  alcohol.  Put  into  a 
glass  of  water  a  drop  of  boiled  starch.  Pour  into  this  mixture  a 
few  drops  of  the  dissolved  iodine.  The  mixture  will  be  colored  blue. 
The  color  will  be  apparent  if  only  a  very  small  amount  of  starch  is  put 
into  the  water. 

Boil  the  colored  solution  and  note  that  the  color  disappears.  It 
reappears  on  cooling. 

Dextrin  (C6H10O5).  When  heated  to  about  212° 
starch  may  be  changed  to  a  soluble  form,  known  as 
dextrin.  The  chemical  composition  remains  the  same 
as  starch,  but  the  atoms  are  differently  arranged  in  the 
molecule.  Dextrin  is  soluble  in  cold  water  and  makes 
a  mucilage.  The  mucilage  on  postage  stamps  is  made 
largely  of  dextrin.  The  starch  of  the  loaf  of  bread  has 
been  changed  into  dextrin  in  the  brown  crust.  The 
ease  with  which  toast  is  digested  is  due  to  the  same 
change  in  the  starch. 


38  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Gums.  Knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  gums  is 
quite  limited.  They  have  the  same  general  formula 
as  the  dextrins  and  are  products  of  various  trees  and 
plants.  The  most  familiar  are  gum  arabic,  wood  gum, 
and  gum  tragacanth. 

Nitrogen  Free  Extract.  —  When  a  chemical  analysis 
of  food  is  made,  a  portion  that  has  no  nitrogen  in  it, 
non-nitrogenous,  is  called  nitrogen  free  extract.  It 
consists  largely  of  the  carbohydrates  other  than  cellu- 
lose, which  is  named  crude  fiber. 

Fats 

Fats  and  oils  are  found  in  both  vegetable  and  animal 
bodies.  They  are  produced  from  starch  in  plants 
during  the  progress  of  growth.  Fat  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  plant,  but  the  mature  seed  has  the  largest 
proportion.  The  seeds  of  flax,  cotton,  and  corn  are 
particularly  rich  in  fat.  During  germination  the  fat 
in  the  seed  changes  back  to  starch. 

The  fats  and  oils  are  salts ;  that  is,  they  are  made 
by  the  union  of  a  base  and  acid.  The  base  is  glycerin 
(C3H5(OH)3)  in  its  pure  state  a  sweet,  colorless,  odor- 
less liquid.  The  character  of  the  fat  depends  upon 
the  acid  that  is  united  with  the  glycerin.  There  are 
four  acids  that  are  most  common  in  forming  fats : 
stearic,  palmitic,  oleic,  and  butyric. 

Notes.  —  Stearin  (C57H110O,.)  is  a  fat  made  by  the  union  of  the 
base  glycerin  and  stearic  acid.  It  is  a  solid  fat  and  melts  at  a  compar- 
atively high  temperature.  Most  of  the  solid  animal  fats,  such  as  beef, 
mutton,  tallow,  and  lard,  are  composed  largely  of  stearin. 

Palmitin  (C^HggOg)  is  a  solid  fat  with  a  slightly  lower  melting 
point  than  stearin.  It  is  a  constituent  of  human  fat,  butter,  and  palm 
oil. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  39 

Olein  (C^H^Ce)  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  a  liquid.  Sperm  oil 
and  cod  liver  oil  are  rich  in  olein.  Fats  that  are  soft  or  have  a  tendency 
to  become  liquid  under  normal  conditions  owe  their  softness  to  the 
presence  of  olein. 

Butyrin  is  the  fat  that  gives  to  butter  its  characteristic  taste  when 
fresh.  In  strong,  or  rancid,  butter  some  of  the  butyrin  has  changed 
to  butyric  acid,  which  produces  the  unpleasant  flavor  and  odor.  By 
thoroughly  washing,  this  acid  may  be  washed  out  of  the  butter,  and 
then  by  reworking,  the  butter  may  be  made  more  palatable.  Reno- 
vated butter  is  made  by  thoroughly  washing  strong  or  rancid  butter, 
melting  it,  blowing  hot  air  throught  it,  filtering  it,  and  then  rechurning  it 
with  sweet  milk. 

Oleomargarine,  or  butterine,  is  made  largely  from  stearin.  Beef 
suet  or  tallow  is  melted,  and  a  clear  yellow  oil  is  obtained.  This  oil  is 
allowed  to  become  solid  and  pressure  is  applied  to  it,  forcing  out  an  oil 
which,  when  mixed  with  lard  and  cottonseed  oil  and  churned  with 
milk,  produces  a  wholesome  food  product  somewhat  resembling  butter. 

Ether  Extract.  This  is  a  term  used  to  indicate  sub- 
stances that  are  dissolved  by  ether.  In  food  tables 
when  the  term  ether  extract  is  used  it  includes  all 
fats.  Ether  will  dissolve  fats,  oils,  gums,  resins,  and 
chlorophyll.  The  largest  amount  of  ether  extract 
of  both  vegetable  and  animal  matter  is  fats  and 
oils. 

Saponification,  or  Soap  Making.  —  When  an  al- 
kali acts  upon  a  fat  or  oil,  a  soap  is  produced.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  ammonia  in  a  glass  of  water  will  make  a 
wash  for  the  scalp.  When  the  scalp  is  rubbed  with 
this  alkali,  saponification  takes  place.  The  oil  in  the 
scalp  combines  with  the  ammonia,  and  a  soap  is  formed 
which  works  up  into  a  lather  in  the  hair.  Caustic 
soda  and  potash  are  the  alkalies  commonly  used  to 
make  soap,  soft  soap  being  made  from  caustic  potash 
and  hard  soap  being  made  from  caustic  soda.  Soft  soap 


40  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

is  potassium  stearate,  oleate,  and  palmitate  ;   hard  soap 
is  sodium  stearate,  oleate,  and  palmitate. 

The  home  method  of  making  soft  soap  is  as  follows  : 
Fill  a  barrel  with  wood  ashes.  Pour  water  on  the  ashes 
and  allow  it  to  percolate  through  the  ashes  and  to  pass 
out  through  a  hole  near  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  into 
a  jar.  This  liquid  is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  called  lye. 
This  process  may  be  continued  till  the  ashes  have  given 
up  nearly  all  the  potash  that  they  contain.  Pieces  of 
animal  fats,  usually  wastes  of  the  kitchen,  are  melted 
in  an  iron  kettle.  After  removing  the  parts  that  will 
not  melt,  the  oil  is  boiled  with  the  lye  till  the  soft  soap 
is  formed. 

Alcohols 

Although  there  are  numerous  carbon  compounds  that 
are  properly  called  alcohols,  there  are  but  two  which 
are  of  general  interest.  They  are  ethyl  alcohol  and 
methyl  alcohol. 

Ethyl  Alcohol  (C2H-,OH). — This  is  common  alcohol, 
that  which  is  meant  by  most  persons  when  using  the 
term.  It  is  a  clear  liquid  which  burns  with  great  heat. 
Because  of  the  abundance  of  H  and  the  small  amount  of 
C,  it  burns  without  smoke,  therefore  does  not  darken 
articles  heated  in  its  flames.  Ethyl  alcohol  is  produced 
by  fermentation  of  sugar.  A  plant  juice  containing 
sugar,  that  is,  grape  sugar,  or  glucose,  when  exposed 
to  the  air  loses  its  sweetness  and  changes  into  alcohol 
and  carbon  dioxide. 

Glucose          Alcohol      Carbon  dioxide 
C6H12O6  =  2  C2H5OH   +     2  CO2 

This  change  is  caused  by  the  action  of  small  ferments, 
called  enzymes.     The  cells  which  secrete  the  enzyme 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  41 

may  be  in  the  air,  and  if  they  find  favorable  conditions 
of  temperature  and  moisture,  they  will  increase  rapidly 
in  the  substance  that  is  adapted  to  their  life.  The 
action  of  these  organisms  on  glucose  produces  alcohol. 

Notes.  —  Enzymes  (also  called  soluble  ferments,  zymeses,  and 
diastases)  are  active,  organic  substances  secreted  by  cells  which  have 
the  property,  under  certain  conditions,  of  hastening  chemical  reactions 
between  certain  bodies  without  entering  into  the  composition  of  the 
products  which  result.  Enzymes  are  secreted  in  the  ptyalin  of  the 
saliva,  in  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach,  and  the  pancreatic  juice. 
These  enzymes  cause  changes  in  the  food  we  eat,  rendering  them  more 
easy  to  assimilate.  Enzymes  are  also  secreted  by  the  cells  of  the  yeast 
plant  and  cause  fermentation  to  take  place. 

If  a  thick  solution  of  glucose  is  placed  in  a  glass  and  exposed  to  the 
air,  no  change  takes  place.  Fermentation  requires  the  presence  of 
some  enzymes.  If  then  there  is  introduced  into  the  solution  some 
vegetable  matter  containing  nitrogen,  the  enzyme-producing  organisms 
have  a  favorable  medium  for  development,  and  alcohol  is  produced. 
Both  the  enzymes  and  the  albuminous  matter  may  be  introduced  directly 
in  the  form  of  yeast.  A  portion  of  a  yeast  cake  put  into  the  glucose 
solution  will  cause  alcoholic  fermentation  to  take  place. 

There  are  other  ferments  adapted  for  growth  in  other  substances  than 
sugar.  The  vegetable  ferment  that  causes  the  souring  of  milk  is  called 
a  lactic  ferment.  Another  ferment  acts  upon  alcohol  and  produces 
vinegar.  This  is  called  acetic  ferment.  Butyric  fermentation  is 
caused  by  an  organism  in  butter. 

Distillation.  —  Alcohol  is  made  in  large  quantities 
from  corn  and  from  potatoes.  The  starch  in  the  corn 
and  in  the  potato  is  changed  into  glucose  by  fermenta- 
tion, and  then  the  glucose  is  changed  into  alcohol. 
A  still  is  necessary  for  distilling  and  collecting  the  al- 
cohol. A  mash  made  of  the  corn  or  vegetable  from 
which  the  alcohol  is  to  be  made  is  allowed  to  ferment 
till  the  alcohol  is  formed  in  it.  The  mash  is  then 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


Water 


placed  in  a  boiler  and  heat  is  applied.     The  heat  pro- 
duces a  vapor  which  is  made  up  of  alcohol  and  water 

with  some  other 
substances.  The 
vapor  is  conducted 
through  a  tube  to  a 
condenser.  Here 
the  tube  is  contin- 
ued in  the  form  of 
a  spiral,  called  the 
worm.  Cold  water 
is  passed  through 
the  condenser  con- 
tinuously so  that 
the  worm  is  kept 
cool.  This  con- 
denses the  vapor 
passing  through  it. 
This  product  is  largely  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  water,  and 
other  alcohols,  called  fusel  oil.  The  water  may  be  par- 
tially removed  by  further  distillation. 

The  water  cannot  be  entirely  removed  by  distilla- 
tion, but  a  product  containing  about  96  per  cent  of 
alcohol  may  be  obtained  by  this  process.  By  other 
methods  all  the  water  may  be  removed  and  the  prod- 
uct is  absolute  alcohol. 

Notes.  —  Fusel  oil,  found  in  distilled  liquors,  is  extremely  poisonous. 
Proof  spirits  is  a  low  grade  of  alcohol  that  contains  just  enough 
alcohol  to  burn  (49  per  cent) . 

Many  intoxicating  beverages  depend  upon  alcohol 
for  their  intoxicating  principle.  These  beverages  are 
merely  alcohol  with  water  and  a  small  amount  of  the 


FIG.  10.  —  A  Still. 
(From  Davison's  The  Human  Body  and  Health.) 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


43 


substance  of  the  fruit  or  grain  from  which  they    are 
made. 

Acetic  fermentation  often  follows  the  alcoholic  fer- 
mentation. If  it  is  not  checked  by  bottling  or  cooling, 
the  alcohol  is  broken  up  into  acetic  acid  and  water. 


Alcohol 
C2H5OH 


Oxygen  from  air 
+       02       = 


Acetic  acid 


Water 
H20 


Pure  alcohol  exposed  to  the  air  will  not  oxidize,  but 
when  some  nitrogenous  substance  is  added  to  it  the 
acetic  fermentation  takes  place. 

Vinegar  consists  of  water  with  from  about  four 
per  cent  of  acetic  acid.  It  may  be  made  by  allow- 
ing weak  spirits  of  wine  or  any  other  weak  alcohol  to 
trickle  slowly  through  a 
cask  filled  with  beech 
shavings  which  have  pre- 
viously been  soaked  in  a 
strong  vinegar.  The  pro- 
duction of  acetic  acid  is 
caused  by  the  presence  of 
an  enzyme  secreted  by 
cells  which  when  collected 
in  masses  is  called  mother 
of  vinegar. 

This  mother  covers  the 
shavings  in  the  cask  and 
causes  the  oxidation  of  the 
alcohol.  This  method  is 
called  the  quick  method.  If  the  spirits  of  wine  is  placed 
in  a  cask  with  the  bung  removed  to  allow  the  entrance 
of  air,  the  same  result  will  be  produced,  but  it  will 
take  some  months  to  make  the  change  complete. 


FIG.  ii.  —  Making  Vinegar. 


44  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Cider  Vinegar.  The  sugar  in  the  juice  of  the  apple 
ferments  to  alcohol,  forming  hard  cider,  and  if  the  fer- 
mentation is  allowed  to  continue,  the  alcohol  is  in 
turn  changed  to  acetic  acid  and  cider  vinegar  is  pro- 
duced. 

Vinegar  may  be  made  in  the  same  way  from  maple 
sirup  or  from  any  other  liquid  that  contains  sugar. 

Methyl  Alcohol  (CH3OH). — Methyl  alcohol  is  also 
called  wood  alcohol,  because  it  is  produced  by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood.  It  is  one  of  the 
substances  produced  when  charcoal  is  made.  Methyl 
alcohol  resembles  ethyl  alcohol  in  its  appearance. 
It  may  be  used  to  dissolve  gums,  for  fuel,  and  for 
many  other  purposes  for  which  ethyl  alcohol  is  used. 
It  is  a  deadly  poison. 

Denatured  Alcohol.  —  Ethyl  alcohol  may  be  made 
unfit  for  use  in  liquors  by  mixing  with  it  about  ten 
per  cent  of  wood  alcohol  and  pyridine  or  about  one  per 
cent  of  benzine.  This  makes  a  very  nauseating  mixture 
called  denatured  alcohol,  which  can  be  used  in  the  arts 
instead  of  pure  alcohol.  The  government  tax  has 
been  taken  from  denatured  alcohol. 

PHOSPHORUS  (P) 

Phosphorus  does  not  occur  free  in  nature.  In  its 
manufactured  state  it  is  seen  in  the  form  of  sticks 
somewhat  larger  than  a  lead  pencil  and  two  to  four 
inches  in  length.  It  is  kept  in  bottles  filled  with  water, 
for  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  air  it  unites  so  readily 
with  O  that  it  is  soon  consumed.  It  should  never  be 
handled  with  dry  fingers,  as  it  makes  a  very  deep  and 
dangerous  burn.  It  may  be  removed  from  the  water 
with  iron  tweezers.  As  soon  as  the  air  commences  to 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  45 

act  on  it,  a  disagreeable  odor  is  produced.     The  fumes 
are  PzOf,.     P^O^  unites  readily  with  H2O. 

Phosphoric  Water  Phosphoric 

pentoxide  acid 

P2O5        +       2H2O  2H3PO4 


Notes.  —  Phosphorus  may  be  obtained  by  treating  bones  wit 
after  the  animal  matter  has  been  burned  out  of  them.  This  changes  the 
calcium  phosphate  to  calcium  superphosphate  and  calcium  sulphate.  The 
sulphate  is  removed  by  filtration  and  the  superphosphate  is  mixed  with 
powdered  charcoal,  heated  and  distilled,  and  the  distillate  collected  under 
water.  The  phosphorus  is  then  melted  under  hot  water  and  run  into 
molds. 

Matches  owe  their  inflammability  to  the  presence  of  the  phos- 
phorus in  the  head  of  the  match.  To  make  the  sulphur  matches 
the  end  of  a  small  piece  of  wood  is  stuck  in  a  paste,  made  of  phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  and  glue,  and  the  whole  is  coated  with  glue  to  protect 
the  phosphorus  from  the  air.  To  make  the  cracking  matches  the  paste 
is  made  of  phosphorus,  chlorate  of  potash,  and  glue.  The  heat  pro- 
duced by  the  friction  of  the  match  is  sufficient  to  ignite  the  phosphorus  ; 
this  produces  heat  enough  to  cause  the  sulphur  or  the  chlorate  of  pot- 
ash to  burn,  and  this,  in  turn,  causes  the  end  of  the  stick  to  burst  into 
flame.  Safety  match  boxes  have  red  phosphorus  and  powdered  glass  on 
the  sides,  and  the  matches  are  tipped  with  sulphide  of  antimony  and 
chlorate  of  potash.  Unless  the  match  is  scratched  on  the  preparation 
on  the  match  box,  it  will  not  ignite. 

Phosphates.  --The  element  phosphorus  is  taken 
up  in  considerable  quantities  by  nearly  all  food-pro- 
ducing plants.  It  is  found  in  the  fruits  and  in  the 
grains.  Although  the  plant  takes  the  largest  amount 
of  P  during  the  early  part  of  its  growth,  this  element 
is  stored  up  in  the  fruit  or  the  grain  before  maturity. 
If  the  element  is  not  present  in  the  soil  in  available 
forms,  the  plant  dies  of  starvation. 


46  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

The  element  phosphorus  is  not  taken  up  in  its  pure 
form  by  the  plant,  but  in  the  form  of  dissolved  mineral 
matter,  called  phosphates,  which  are  absorbed  by  the 
roots.  The  most  important  of  these  used  by  the  plant 
is  calcium  phosphate,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
phosphate  of  lime. 

Note.  —  Phosphates  are  an  essential  part  of  the  food  for  man  and 
other  animals.  They  are  not  only  necessary  to  bone  formation,  but 
are  found  in  all  the  tissues  of  the  body,  the  nerve  tissues  and  the  brain 
containing  a  large  percentage.  Phosphates  are  excreted  by  the  kid- 
neys, the  quantity  excreted  seeming  to  bear  a  direct  ratio  to  the  amount 
and  intensity  of  brain  action. 

Calcium  Phosphate  (Ca3(PO4)2).  --There  are  two 
principal  sources  of  calcium  phosphate,  the  bones  of 
animals  and  phosphatic  rock.  Phosphatic  rock  de- 
posits are  probably  the  accumulated  remains  of  the 
bones  of  prehistoric  animals  turned  into  stone;  so 
that  it  may  be  said  there  is  but  one  great  source 
of  calcium  phosphate,  namely,  the  bones  of  animals. 

The  fresh  or  green  bones  of  animals  have  much 
organic  matter  in  them,  and  because  of  this,  though 
the  bones  are  ground  fine,  the  powder  docs  not  dis- 
solve readily  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  The  bones  are 
therefore  boiled  and  steamed  to  extract  all  of  the  ani- 
mal matter.  They  are  then  ground  fine  and  sold  as 
steamed  bone  meal.  This  contains  about  30  per  cent 
of  phosphoric  acid.  In  the  large  packing  establish- 
ments, where  many  thousands  of  animals  are  killed 
yearly,  the  bones  accumulate  in  such  quantities  that 
they  are  economically  treated  to  make  phosphate 
fertilizers. 

Mineral  phosphates,  as  they  are  mined,  contain 
varying  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid.  That  mined  in 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PLANT  FOOD  47 

Quebec  and  Ontario,  called  apatite,  has  about  40  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  while  the  beds  of  phosphatic 
rock  in  South  Carolina  yield  28  per  cent,  in  Florida  3 
percent,  and  in  Tennessee  35  per  cent.  Large  beds  of 
phosphate  have  been  discovered  in  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States,  but  they  have  not  been  mined  to 
any  great  extent. 

Since  the  grains  remove  such  a  large  quantity  of 
phosphates  from  the  soil  that  is  not  restored  by 
present  methods  of  farming,  many  soils  are  becoming 
unproductive.  The  beds  of  phosphate  rock  will  all 
be  needed  to  restore  the  phosphates  taken  out  of  the 
soil.  Measures  are  being  proposed  to  prevent  the 
exportation  of  the  products  from  these  beds  so  that 
the  supply  necessary  for  use  in  this  country  may  not 
be  exhausted. 

Superphosphates.  —  A  chemical  analysis  of  a  given  soil 
may  show  that  it  contains  a  large  supply  of  calcium 
phosphate,  and  yet  this  may  not  be  in  the  right  form 
for  the  plant  to  use ;  that  is,  it  may  not  be  available. 
The  phosphoric  acid  in  steamed  bone  meal  is  slowly 
available,  and  a  little  of  it  can  be  used  by  the  plant  as 
soon  as  it  is  applied.  Many  of  the  mineral  phosphates 
are  so  nearly  insoluble  that  their  phosphoric  acid  is 
very  slowly  available.  It  is  then  said  to  be  unavailable. 
On  account  of  this  lack  of  availability  of  the  phos- 
phorus in  mineral  phosphates,  they  are  often  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the 
phosphoric  acid  available.  The  rock  so  treated  is 
called  superphosphate,  or  acidulated  rock. 

Calcium  Sulphuric  Calcium  Calcium 

phosphate  acid  sulphate  superphosphate 

Ca3(PO4)2  +     2  H2SO4  =      2  CaSO4    +     CaH4(PO4)2 


48  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

In  the  form  of  a  superphosphate  the  phosphorus 
is  available,  and  the  treated  rock  becomes  a  valuable 
fertilizer. 

The  untreated  jock,  called  floats,  may  be  acted  on 
by  the  carbonic  acid  or  the  humic  acids  in  the  soil  and 
rendered  slowly  available.  If  an  immediate  return 
of  fertility  is  desired,  a  superphosphate  should  be 
used.  Permanent  improvement  in  a  soil  may  be  made 
by  use  of  the  mineral  phosphates  or  floats,  which  be- 
come slowly  available  as  plant  food,  spreading  their 
effect  over  a  number  of  years. 

Reverted  phosphoric  acid  represents  a  condition  of 
turning  back  of  the  superphosphate,  or  the  available 
phosphoric  acid,  to  the  unavailable  form.  It  is  still 
counted  as  available,  though  its  degree  of  availability 
is  lessened. 

Note.  —  The  conservation  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  a  most 
serious  material  problem,  and  the  vital  factor  in  this  problem  is 
the  supply  of  phosphorus.  The  solution  of  the  question  of  where 
the  supply  of  phosphorus  for  future  generations  is  coming  from  is  one 
which  can  be  delayed  but  a  few  years  longer,  if  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
is  to  be  maintained.  It  has  been  estimated  that  there  is  not  enough 
native  phosphorus  in  the  upper  seven  inches  of  the  average  soil  of  the 
corn  belt  to  last  fifty  years,  if  maximum  crops  are  taken  off  each  year. 
Long  before  the  expiration  of  the  half  century,  maximum  crops  will 
probably  be  impossible  because  of  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  phosphorus. 
The  visible  supply  of  rock  phosphate,  at  the  present  rate  of  use,  will 
not  last  fifty  years.  The  other  commercial  source  is  bone  meal,  a  prod- 
uct made  by  fertilizing  companies  and  packers  by  grinding  the  bones 
of  animals  slaughtered  for  food.  Although  the  supply  from  this  source 
is  slowly  increasing,  the  total  output  is  not  adequate  to  make  good  the 
depletion  of  the  soil  by  continuous  harvesting  of  crops. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  49 

POTASSIUM  (K)  (L.  Kdlium) 

Description  and  Occurrence. --The  element  potas- 
sium is  a  soft  metal  with  a  brilliant  bluish  white 
luster.  It  is  one  of  the  lightest  of  metals  and  floats 
on  water.  Its  marked  affinity  for  O  leads  to  the  ready 
decomposition  of  water  when  potassium  is  thrown 
on  it.  The  liberated  H  catches  fire  and  the  whole 
burns  with  a  beautiful  violet  flame.  Potassium  is 
not  found  free  in  nature,  but  in  its  compounds  it  is 
very  widely  distributed.  These  compounds  are  found 
in  soils  and  rocks,  forming  one  of  the  essential  mineral 
forms  of  plant  food. 
Plants  take  potassium 
salts  through  their  roots, 
and  when  they  are 
burned  it  remains  as 
potassium  carbonate  in 
the  ashes. 

The   metal   K  is   not 

r  ,  •  i  FIG.  12.  —  Potassium  burning  on  Water. 

oi  great  importance,  but 

the  salts,  potassium  carbonate,  potassium  nitrate,  potas- 
sium chloride,  and  potassium  sulphate,  are  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  the  farmer. 

Note.  —  On  account  of  its  affinity  for  O,  the  metal  potassium  is 
kept  in  petroleum  or  naphtha,  which  contains  no  O.  The  metal  should 
be  cut  into  small  pieces  about  the  size  of  a  pea  for  placing  on  water. 
As  there  is  a  slight  explosion  as  the  last  particle  is  consumed,  one  should 
not  stand  too  close  to  the  dish. 

Potassium  Chloride  (KC1),  sometimes  called  mu- 
riate of  potassium.  — This  potassium  salt,  more  than  any 
of  the  other  potassium  compounds,  is  used  as  a  fer- 

M,  &  H.  AG. 4 


50  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

tilizer  in  the  United  States.  It  is  the  cheapest  source 
of  potassium  obtained  from  commercial  fertilizers. 
On  account  of  the  chlorine  that  it  contains,  it  should 
not  be  used  to  a  great  extent  for  tobacco,  onions, 
beets,  or  potatoes. 

Potassium  Carbonate  (K2CO3).  -  -  This  salt  is  pre- 
pared in  this  country  by  leaching  wood  ashes  to  form 
potash  lye,  then  evaporating  the  lye  in  large  pots, 
whence  its  name  potash.  When  refined  it  is  called 
pearl  ash.  It  is  a  very  strong  alkali  and  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  soft  soap.  The  largest  supply 
is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  sugar  beets. 

All  crops  are  improved  by  a  light  application  of  wood 
ashes  to  the  soil.  Such  sources  of  potassium  on  the 
farm  should  not  be  wasted  nor  lie  out  in  piles  un- 
protected. Leached  ashes  have  very  little  potassium 
left  in  them.  Besides  potash,  ashes  contain  carbonate 
of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  which  give  them  added 
value  as  a  fertilizer.  Coal  ashes  have  no  potassium 
salts  that  are  available  as  food  for  plants  and  there- 
fore cannot  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  wood  ashes. 

Potassium  nitrate  (KNO3),  niter  or  saltpeter,  is 
a  white  solid  usually  seen  in  crystalline  form.  It  is 
present  in  most  fertile  soils  and  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  nitric  acid  and  gunpowder.  It  is  an  anti- 
septic compound  and  is,  therefore,  often  used  with 
common  salt  (NaCl)  for  preserving  meat. 

Note.  —  Gunpowder  is  a  mixture  of  pulverized  charcoal,  pulverized 
sulphur,  and  potassium  nitrate  (KNO3).  Its  explosiveness  is  due  to 
the  formation  of  CO2  and  N  in  large  quantities  as  soon  as  ignition  takes 
place.  The  reaction  may  be  expressed  : 

2  KN03  +  S  +  3  C  =  K,S  +  2  N  +  3  CO2 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  51 

Potassium  Sulphate  (K2SO4).  -  -  This  is  prepared 
from  some  of  the  Stassfurt  salts  and  furnishes  a  large 
percentage  of  potassium  in  the  compound.  It  is 
especially  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  because  it  can  be 
applied  in  places  where  potassium  chloride  (KC1) 
cannot,  the  latter  being  destructive  of  vegetable  life  if 
applied  directly  to  the  planto. 

Note.  —  Vast  amounts  of  potassium  salts  have  been  mined  in  the 
Stassfurt  salt  mines  in  Germany.  Many  thousand  tons  of  these  salts 
are  shipped  annually  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Stassfurt  mines 
were  first  mined  for  rock  salt  and  the  potassium  salts  were  regarded  as 
troublesome  impurities.  The  great  value  of  these  salts  was  soon  found 
out,  and  supplying  them  to  the  world  has  become  one  of  the  greatest 
industries  of  Germany. 

Potassium  hydroxide  (KOH),  caustic  potash,  is  a 
white  solid  usually  sold  in  the  form  of  sticks  about 
the  size  of  a  lead  pencil.  The  sticks  are  kept  in  closed 
bottles,  as  the  hydroxide  attracts  the  moisture  in  the 
air  and  CO2  slowly  changes  it  to  K2COs  (potassium 
carbonate).  Potassium  hydroxide  is  one  of  the 
strongest  alkalies  known.  It  quickly  destroys  both 
animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and  hence  should 
not  be  touched  with  bare  hands.  It  unites  with  grease 
to  form  soft  soap. 

Kainit.  Kainit  is  a  low  grade  of  potassium  salt 
mined  in  Germany.  It  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  very 
extensively.  Although  it  contains  but  a  small  amount 
of  potash  compared  with  other  potassium  fertilizers,  it 
is  considered  valuable  because  of  its  action  in  ren- 
dering available  nitrogen  compounds  in  the  soil.  It 
consists  of  potassium  sulphate  and  magnesium  chlo- 
ride. 


52  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

As  it  comes  from  the  mines  it  is  mixed  with  common 
salt,  gypsum  (calcium  sulphate),  potassium  chloride, 
and  other  minerals. 

Note.  —  Potassium  hydroxide  is  used  to  destroy  the  soft  horn  form- 
ing on  the  heads  of  calves,  thus  easily  and  painlessly  dehorning  them. 
Wrap  a  piece  of  paper  about  a  stick  of  KOH  to  protect  the  hand, 
moisten  one  end  of  the  stick,  and  rub  it  on  the  nub  of  the  horn  appear- 
ing on  the  head  of  the  calf.  Care  should  be  taken  that  none  of  the 
caustic  flows  down  on  the  skin  of  the  animal.  Two  applications  wili 
effectually  prevent  the  growth  of  the  horn. 

CALCIUM  (Ca) 

Description  and  Occurrence.  —  Calcium  is  abundant 
in  the  ash  of  all  plants  and  gives  to  plants  vigor  of 
growth  and  ability  to  stand  climatic  changes  and 
drouth.  It  is  a  yellowish  white,  soft  metal,  not  found 
free  in  nature.  As  a  metal  it  is  of  little  importance, 
but  its  compounds  are  widely  distributed  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth. 

Calcium  carbonate  (CaCO3)  is  also  called  carbonate 
of  lime.  This  important  compound  makes  up  the 
larger  part  of  limestone  and  of  marble;  the  shells  of 
oysters  and  other  mollusks  are  composed  almost 
entirely  of  it,  while  in  the  bones  of  animals  and  the 
shells  of  eggs  it  enters  as  an  important  ingredient. 
Water  charged  with  CO2  dissolves  calcium  carbonate, 
producing  a  bicarbonate  of  lime. 

CO2       +  H2O      =  H2CO3 
CaCO3  +  H2CO3  =  CaH2(CO3)2 

It  is  this  compound  with  others  that  makes  what  is 
called  hard  water. 

Carbonate  of  lime  is  found  in  ample  quantities    in 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PLANT  FOOD  53 

most  soils,  but  some  soils  do  not  have  enough  to  supply 
plants  with  the  lime  that  they  need.  In  such  cases 
lime  may  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  ground  limestone. 
Carbonate  of  lime  will  correct  the  acidity  of  sour  soils 
and  will  unite  with  nitric  add  to  form  calcium  nitrate, 
an  available  form  of  plant  food. 

Lime  has  also  a  good  physical  effect  on  soils.  When 
applied  to  light,  sandy  soils,  it  has  a  tendency  to  bind 
the  particles  of  sand  together,  while  on  heavy  clay 
soils  it  renders  them  more  open  and  porous  and  helps 
to  admit  air.  Although  carbonate  of  lime  furnishes 
an  essential  plant  food,  namely  calcium,  the  soil  may 
have  an  ample  supply  of  this  element  in  other  com- 
pounds and  still  need  carbonate  of  lime  to  improve 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  to  correct  its  acidity 
or  to  aid  in  rendering  available  other  forms  of  plant 
food.  To  obtain  the  best  results,  lime  should  be 
applied  with  manure  or  other  forms  of  plant  food. 
The  old  couplet, 

"  Lime  without  manure 

Makes  the  father  rich  and  the  children  poor," 

expresses  a  truth  that  should  be  heeded. 

Calcium  oxide  (CaO),  quicklime,  is  made  by  heat- 
ing limestone  (CaCO3)  in  a  kiln.  A  kiln  is  often  built 
from  rough  stones  in  the  side  of  a  hill.  The  lime- 
stone is  then  piled  in  such  a  way  in  the  kiln  as  to  make 
a  place  for  the  fire,  but  piled  so  loosely  that  the  heat 
may  pass  up  among  the  pieces  of  limestone.  The 
process  of  burning  the  lime  requires  several  days. 
CO2  is  driven  off  by  the  heat,  leaving  CaO,  or  quick- 
lime. 

Quicklime  may  serve  as  a  fertilizer  the  same  as  CaCO3, 


54 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


but  it  must  be  used  very  sparingly  and  never  put  on 
the  land  after  the  latter  has  been  seeded. 

If  CaO  is  exposed  to 
the  air,  it  absorbs  mois- 
ture and  CO2  and  falls 
down  in  a  powder  called 
air-slacked  lime.  This 
is  a  mixture  of  calcium 
carbonate  and  calcium 
hydroxide  (Ca(OH)2). 
Air-slacked  lime  may 
also  be  used  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, but  should  not 
be  applied  directly  to 
plants. 

Calcium  hydroxide 
(Ca(OH)2),  caustic  lime, 
FIG.  13.  —A  Lime  Kiln.  slacked  lime,  is  prepared 

by  adding  water  to  quicklime. 

CaO  +  H20  =  Ca(OH)2 

It  is  a  white  powder,  strongly  alkaline.  It  is  only 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  the  dilute  solution  obtained 
being  called  limewater.  When  the  particles  of  hy- 
droxide are  mixed  with  the  limewater,  milk  of  lime 
is  produced,  and  when  part  of  the  water  is  evaporated, 
the  resultant  is  called  cream  of  lime. 

Slacked  lime  mixed  with  water  and  sand  makes  the 
mortar  used  for  building  purposes.  The  mortar  hardens 
in  air,  forming  CaCO3,  but  will  not  harden  in  water.  The 
burning  of  limestone  that  contains  more  than  15  percent 
of  clay  yields  hydraulic  lime,  or  cement.  A  mortar  made 
of  cement  will  harden  under  water  as  well  as  in  air. 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF   PLANT  FOOD  55 

Calcium  Sulphate  (CaSO4).  --This  compound  is 
found  in  the  mineral  form,  anhydrous,  but  a  much  more 
familiar  form  is  its  combination,  with  H2O,  called  gyp- 
sum. When  gypsum  is  heated  to  about  250°  F.,  it 
loses  a  portion  of  the  water  bound  up  in  its  crystals, 
called  water  of  crystallization,  and  when  ground  into  a 
powder,  is  called  plaster  of  Paris.  Gypsum,  either 
burned  or  unburned,  is  called  plaster  or  land  plaster, 
and  has  been  used  extensively  as  a  fertilizer.  As  such 
it  has  much  the  same  effect  as  lime,  making  the  potas- 
sium compounds  more  soluble.  It  may  be  used  to 
great  advantage  as  an  absorber  of  ammonia  on  the 
floors  of  stables  and  under  the  roosts  in  poultry  houses. 

Note.  —  Plaster  of  Paris  is  a  white  powder  used  in  making  the 
putty  coat,  or  outside  coat,  of  plaster  on  walls,  in  making  casts  of  vari- 
ous objects,  and  as  a  cement  for  sticking  glass  and  metal,  sucn  as  the 
brass  rings  to  the  top  of  lamps.  When  plaster  of  Paris  is  mixed  to  a 
paste  with  water,  it  sets  with  increase  of  volume.  This  characteristic 
makes  it  particularly  valuable  in  making  casts  and  taking  copies  of 
medallions. 

MAGNESIUM  (Mg) 

Description  and  Occurrence. — Magnesium  is  a  metal 
of  a  silver-white  appearance  which  is  easily  tarnished 
in  moist  air.  It  is  prepared  for  commerce  either  as 
a  ribbon  or  as  a  powder.  The  ribbon,  when  burned, 
produces  a  very  bright  light,  having  much  the  same 
effect  as  sunlight.  In  the  powdered  form  it  is  used 
to  make  the  flash  light  for  taking  photographs  in 
darkened  rooms. 

Magnesium  is  an  essential  element  for  the  growth 
of  plants,  but  the  compounds  of  magnesium  found  in 
the  soil  are  everywhere  so  plentiful  that  plants  never 
suffer  for  the  want  of  it. 


56  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Magnesium  sulphate  (MgSO4),  Epsom  salts,  found 
in  many  mineral  waters,  is  a  very  common  drug  used 
in  medical  practice. 

Magnesium  carbonate  (MgCO3)  is  frequently  used  as 
an  adulterant  of  face  powder.  This  is  the  magnesia  of 
commerce  or  magnesia  alba.  It  is  often  combined  with 
calcium  carbonate  and  then  is  called  dolomite  or  dolo- 
mitic  limestone.  The  soft  crayon  used  in  schools  is 
made  by  mixing  magnesia  with  a  fine  clay  to  give  it 
strength. 

SULPHUR  (S) 

Description  and  Occurrence.  —  Sulphur  exists  in 
various  forms  as  an  element.  It  may  be  melted  and 
run  into  molds,  making  the  common  form  sold  in  the 
stores  as  brimstone.  It  may  be  vaporized  and  collected 
on  the  cool  walls  of  the  chamber  containing  the  vapor. 
It  then  appears  as  a  yellow  powder  called  flour  ol 
sulphur.  If  boiled  and  poured  slowly  into  cold  water, 
it  becomes  dark  colored  and  non-crystalline,  or  amor- 
phous. In  this  form  it  has  much  of  the  elasticity  of 
rubber. 

Large  quantities  of  sulphur  are  mined  on  the  island 
of  Sicily,  from  which  source  has  come  in  the  past 
most  of  the  world's  supply.  In  recent  years,  Louisiana 
and  Texas  have  supplied  very  much  of  the  sulphur  for 
this  country. 

Sulphur  is  found  in  compounds  in  nearly  all  plants 
and  animals.  The  color  of  the  hair  is  probably  due 
to  some  organic  compound  of  S.  The  sulphides  of  the 
common  metals,  lead  (PbS),  zinc  (ZnS),  iron  (FeS2),  and 
copper  (CuS),  are  combinations  with  sulphur.  FeS2 
is  a  low  grade  of  iron  known  as  iron  pyrites.  It  is 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  57 

sometimes  mistaken  for  gold,  and  is  therefore  called 
fool's  gold. 

Some  Compounds  of  S.  —  Hydrogen  sulphide  (H2S), 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  is  a  gas  of  a  disagreeable  odor. 
This  substance  is  produced  in  the  decay  of  vegetables 
and  animal  matter  and  gives  its  most  characteristic 
odor  to  rotten  eggs.  It  is  present  in  most  sulphur 
springs. 

H2S  and  other  sulphides  act  on  most  metals  and  tar- 
nish them.  Silver  shows  its  effects  quite  noticeably. 
If  a  rubber  band  is  snapped  around  a  silver  dollar  and 
allowed  to  remain  for  a  time,  a  black  streak  will  appear 
on  the  coin.  This  streak  is  caused  by  the  sulphur  in 
the  rubber  uniting  with  the  silver,  thus  producing  silver 
sulphide.  This  action  of  sulphur  may  be  seen  on  silver 
spoons  used  to  dish  boiled  onions.  Mustard  and  the 
yolks  of  eggs  also  have  a  tarnishing  effect  on  silver- 
ware. 

The  action  of  H2S  on  metals  makes  it  one  of  the  most 
important  reagents  for  use  in  the  laboratory.  It  is 
made  from  the  metal  sulphides  by  adding  an  acid. 

Ferrous  sul-      Hydrochloric       Ferrous  Hydrogen 

phide  acid  chloride  sulphide 

FeS        +       2HC1      =       FeCl2         +       H2S 

The  gas  is  poisonous,  and  when  mixed  with  air  is 
explosive ;  hence  it  should  not  be  made  where  the  gas 
will  enter  the  lungs  or  be  allowed  to  escape  into  a 
room  where  there  is  fire. 

Note.  —  Sulphur  is  found  about  100  feet  below  the  surface  in 
Louisiana.  A  four-inch  pipe  is  driven  down  to  the  bed  of  nearly 
pure  S.  Another  pipe  leads  superheated  steam  to  the  S,  which  is 
thus  melted  and  then  forced  by  air  pressure  to  the  surface  through  the 


58  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

first  pipe.      Here  it  is  allowed  to  solidify,  then  broken  up  into  lumps 
for  shipment. 

Carbon  disulphide  (CSfe)  is  produced  by  passing 
sulphur  vapor  over  glowing  coke  or  charcoal.  It  is 
a  clear  liquid,  with  a  pleasant  odor  when  pure,  but 
when  kept  for  a  time,  especially  if  water  is  present  in 
the  vessel,  it  forms  products  which  have  an  extremely 
disagreeable  odor.  Its  vapor  is  very  inflammable,  hence 
it  should  be  handled  with  care.  It  will  dissolve  rubber 
and  many  other  vegetable  gums.  It  is  used  in  mend- 
ing rubber  and  making  rubber  cement.  Its  vapor  being 
poisonous  is  used  in  destroying  insects  and  vermin  in 
rooms  that  can  be  closed  tightly  and  left  unoccupied. 

Sulphur  dioxide  (SO2)  is  a  colorless  gas  having  a 
suffocating  odor.  It  is  used  for  bleaching  and  is  a 
powerful  antiseptic.  It  was  formerly  much  used  for 
disinfecting  rooms  where  contagious  diseases  had  been 
present.  It  is  easily  produced  by  burning  S  in  the  room. 
If  the  room  be  kept  filled  with  the  gas  for  some  time, 
the  disease  germs  are  killed. 

Sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4),  oil  of  vitriol,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  acids  used  by  the  chemist.  It  is  a 
heavy,  oily  liquid  without  color  when  pure.  The  com- 
mercial acid  is  colored  with  impurities  given  it  in  the 
process  of  manufacture. 

H2SO4  has  a  strong  affinity  for  water.  It  will  ab- 
sorb moisture  from  the  air  and  increase  its  own  bulk. 
For  that  reason  it  should  be  kept  in  closely  stoppered 
bottles.  It  chars  wood  that  is  placed  in  it  and  will 
convert  a  lump  of  sugar  into  charcoal.  This  action 
is  caused  by  its  taking  H2O  from  the  wood  or  the 
sugar  and  leaving  simply  C.  The  commercial  prod- 
uct is  made  in  large  quantities  in  the  process  of  ob- 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  59 

taining  zinc  white  from  its  ore,  zinc  blend,  ZnS.  It 
involves  forming  SO2,  which,  uniting  with  water  vapor, 

H2O  +  SO2  =  H2SO3 

produces  sulphurous  acid,  H2SO3.  Adding  one  atom 
of  O  produces  sulphuric  acid.  This  oxidation  is  pro- 
duced in  lead-lined  chambers  by  the  aid  of  nitric  acid. 
The  process  is  complicated,  but  it  is  given  fully  in  all 
the  standard  encyclopedias. 

A  later  and  more  simple  method  of  manufacture  of 
H2SO4  is  called  the  contact  process.  It  depends  on  the 
fact  that  certain  finely  divided  metals,  more  particularly 
platinum,  have  the  power  of  hastening  some  chemical 
reactions.  By  this  process  SO2  is  made  to  pass  through 
platinized  asbestos,  during  which  process  it  takes  O  and 
becomes  SO3.  The  reaction. is 

2  SO2  +  O2  =  2  S03 

Sulphur  trioxide  (SO3)  combines  directly  with  H2O 
to  make  H2SO4. 

IRON  (Fe) 

Description  and  Occurrence.  —  Iron  is  the  most 
important  of  all  the  metals,  but  is  seldom  found  free 
in  nature.  In  its  pure  state  it  is  of  little  consequence. 
The  iron  that  is  manufactured  into  machinery,  hard- 
ware, and  building  material  is  a  combination  of  iron  and 
carbon.  The  proportion  of  carbon  in  the  combination 
determines  the  quality  of  the  metal  and  the  use  to 
which  it  may  be  applied.  Wrought  iron  has  less  than 
two  tenths  per  cent  of  carbon  and  cannot  be  tempered 
by  sudden  cooling,  while  steel  has  from  two  tenths  per 
cent  to  about  two  per  cent  of  carbon  and  may  be 
tempered  by  sudden  cooling.  The  hardness  of  the  steel 


60  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

increases  with  the  proportion  of  carbon  that  it  contains. 
Iron  containing  more  than  about  two  per  cent  of  car- 
bon is  cast  iron. 

The  iron  ores  as  mined  are  usually  in  one  of  two 
forms,  the  hematite  (Fe2O3)  having  a  deep  red  color 
of  the  appearance  of  red  clay,  and  the  magnetite,  or 
magnetic  iron  ore  (Fe3O4),  which  is  black  in  color. 

Various  iron  compounds  are  found  in  the  ashes  of 
plants,  in  the  blood  of  animals,  in  spring,  river,  and 
ocean  waters  and  in  all  soils. 

Iron  is  necessary  as  a  plant  food,  but  only  a  very 
small  amount  is  required.  There  is  always  a  sufficient 
quantity  present  in  the  soil.  Iron  is  an  aid  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  green  coloring  matter  chlorophyll, 
without  which  the  plant  cannot  grow. 

Iron  Oxides.  —  Iron  unites  with  O  in  different  pro- 
portions forming  oxides  of  iron.  The  various  colored 
brick  are  made  out  of  clay  containing  oxides  of  iron, 
the  colors  being  developed  by  burning  the  clay.  The 
basis  of  red  paint,  red  ochres,  used  for  barns  and  other 
farm  buildings  is  iron  oxide.  The  rusting  of  iron  may 
be  prevented  by  covering  the  metal  with  a  coating  of 
paint,  varnish,  or  me'tal.  Sheet  iron  is  covered  with  a 
coating  of  tin  to  make  our  tin  ware.  A  coating  of 
zinc  deposited  on  iron  makes  galvanized  iron. 

Ferrous  Sulphate  (FeSO4),  sulphate  of  iron,  cop- 
peras, green  vitriol. — This  compound  is  used  more 
extensively  than  any  of  the  other  iron  salts,  being  em- 
ployed in  the  arts  and  somewhat  as  a  disinfectant.  It 
has  been  found  to  be  effective  as  a  destroyer  of  wild 
mustard,  dandelion,  and  other  noxious  weeds  when 
dissolved  in  water  and  used  as  a  spray  when  the  parts 
are  tender. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


FIG.  14.  —  Making  Bordeaux  Mixture. 


Note.  —  Copper  sulphate,  or  blue  vitriol,  has  very  much  the  same 
general  effects  as  iron  sulphate.  It  is  also  used  as  a  disinfectant  and  a 
germicide.  Because  of  its 
power  to  destroy  plant  dis- 
eases, it  is  used  in  Bordeaux 
mixture  as  a  spray. 

To  make  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture. In  a  wooden  vessel  con- 
taining ten  gallons  of  water 
hang  a  coarse  sack  containing 
two  pounds  of  copper  sul- 
phate (CuSO4)  so  that  it  is 
just  below  the  surface.  In 
another  wooden  vessel  slack 
two  pounds  of  quicklime 
(CaO)  by  adding  small  quantities  of  water  till  it  has  the  consistency 
of  cream,  then  'adding  enough  water  to  make  five  gallons.  When  the 
copper  sulphate  has  all  dissolved  and  the  milk  of  lime  has  been  pre- 
pared, strain  .the  milk  of  lime  through  a  coarse  cloth  into  the  copper 
sulphate  solution.  Mix  thoroughly  and  apply  with  a  spray  pump. 

Reaction :  CuSO4  -f  CaO  -f  H2O  =  Cu(OH)2  -f  CaSO4 

Hydroxide  of  copper  (Cu(OH)2)  is  the  active  agent  which  makes  the 
mixture  a  fungicide  or  germicide. 

CHLORINE  (Cl) 

Description  and  Occurrence. — This  is  a  yellowish 
green  gas  with  so  suffocating  an  odor  that  a  small 
quantity  of  it  in  the  air  produces  violent  coughing. 
It  does  not  occur  free  in  nature  and  is  not  a  plant  food. 
Its  presence  in  common  salt  (NaCl)  gives  it  a  very 
extensive  distribution  throughout  the  world. 

Chlorine  has  a  strong  attraction  for  most  of  the 
elements,  but  more  especially  for  H.  This  attraction 
for  H  enables  it  to  break  up  many  organic  molecules 


62  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

containing  this  element.  In  the  presence  of  moisture 
it  breaks  up  and  destroys  the  molecules  of  coloring 
matter  of  dye  stuffs,  thus  acting  as  an  effective  bleach- 
ing agent.  This  is  due  to  the  action  of  O  which  is  set 
free  from  water  by  Cl. 

In  direct  sunlight  Cl  decomposes  water  according  to 
the  following: 

2  H2O  +  2  C12  ==  4  HC1  +  O2 

Hydrochloric  acid  (HC1)  is  one  of  the  most  important 
and  one  of  the  strongest  acids  known.  The  pure  acid 
is  a  gas.  When  absorbed  by  water,  it  makes  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  the  form  that  is  used  most  frequently, 
called  muriatic  acid.  The  acid  is  made  by  heating 
common  salt  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Salt  Sulphuric  Sodium         Hydrochloric 

acid  sulphate  acid 

2NaCl     +       H2SO4        =      Na2SO4      +      2  HC1 

HC1  dissolves  many  metals  and  forms  chlorides. 
When  it  is  mixed  with  nitric  acid,  3  volumes  of  HC1  to 
I  volume  of  HNO3,  it  makes  aqua  regia  (royal  water), 
which  dissolves  the  "  king  of  metals,"  gold.  Plati- 
num is  also  dissolved  in  a  warm  mixture  of  these  acids. 
HC1  is  found  in  the  human  stomach  and  aids  digestion. 
It  is  used  in  the  arts  to  a  very  great  extent  and  is  of 
great  value  to  the  chemist. 

Bleaching  Powder,  chloride  of  lime.  —  As  usually 
sold  in  cans,  this  is  a  mixed  salt  of  hypochlorus  and 
hydrochloric  acids.  Cl  may  be  easily  set  free  by  adding 
a  small  quantity  of  acid  or  by  exposure  in  the  open 
air,  under  which  condition  it  will  escape  slowly.  This 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  63 

mixture  is  used  for  disinfecting  purposes  and  for  bleach 
ing  colored  cloth. 

SODIUM  (Na) 

Description  and  Occurrence.  —  Sodium  is  a  metal 
very  much  like  potassium  in  appearance  and  properties. 
It  is  not  found  free  in  nature  and  as  an  element  it  is 
not  of  very  great  importance,  but  the  compounds  of 
sodium  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  mankind. 
The  principal  one  of  these  compounds  is  common  salt 
(NaCl). 

Sodium  Chloride  (NaCl),  common  salt. — This  min- 
eral compound  is  very  necessary  to  human  and  other 
animal  life.  It  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
world.  Sea  water  contains  two  and  seven  tenths  per 
cent  of  salt,  and  many  springs  and  wells  have  the  salt 
in  solution.  It  is  also  found  in  solid  form  in  large  beds 
in  parts  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

The  salt  of  commerce  is  obtained  by  evaporating 
the  sea  water  or  the  water  of  salt  springs  and  wells  or 
by  mining  that  found  in  beds.  If  the  water  containing 
salt  is  evaporated  rapidly,  the  salt  forms  in  small 
crystals  and  a  very  fine  table  salt  is  produced ;  if  the 
evaporation  is  slower,  the  larger  crystals  form  and  coarse 
salt,  or  rock  salt,  is  produced. 

NaCl  is  used  in  preserving  meats  and  in  destroying 
weeds.  It  has  been  used  as  a  fertilizer,  but  it  has  no 
value  as  a  plant  food. 

Sodium  Nitrate  (NaNO3),  Chile  saltpeter. — This  com- 
pound is  a  very  important  one  to  the  agriculturist,  for 
the  nitrogen  which  it  contains  is  an  essential  plant 
food.  The  price  of  nitrogen  in  all  fertilizers  is  based 
on  the  price  of  Chile  saltpeter.  This  compound  at- 


64  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

tracts  moisture  from  the  air  and  is  readily  soluble 
in  water.  As  a  fertilizer  it  is  especially  valuable  in 
giving  to  plants  a  quick  start  and  for  promoting  a 
luxuriant  stem  and  leaf  growth. 

Sodium  Carbonate  (Na2CC>3),  sal  soda,  washing  soda. 
-This  compound  is  ordinarily  spoken  of  as  soda. 
It  is  used  in  making  soap  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass.  It  takes  the  form  of  crystals  when  combined 
with  H2O.  If  the  H2O  be  driven  off  by  heat,  there  re- 
mains a  white  powder  which  is  pure  Na2CO3. 

Acid  Sodium  Carbonate  (HNaCO3),  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  baking  soda. --This  compound  is  also  some- 
times called  "soda."  When  treated  with  an  acid  it 
effervesces,  releasing  CO2.  Children  sometimes  make 
"  home-made  soda  water  "  by  mixing  this  soda  with 
vinegar.  Its  chief  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  bak- 
ing powder.  Baking  powders  are  made  by  combining 
sodium  bicarbonate  with  some  acid  salt.  When  water 
is  added,  the  reaction  takes  place  and  CO2  is  formed. 
The  salt  is  usually  acid  potassium  tartrate  (cream  of 
tartar)  (KHC4H4O6),  or  acid  phosphate.  To  prevent 
reaction  taking  place  through  the  absorption  of  moisture 
from  the  air,  some  substance  like  starch  is  added  to  the 
baking  powder  to  keep  it  as  dry  as  possible. 

Sodium  Hydroxide  (NaOH),  caustic  soda,  is  a  white, 
brittle  solid  which  dissolves  in  water  with  the  produc- 
tion of  considerable  heat.  It  is  a  very  strong  alkali. 
It  is  used  in  various  industrial  processes,  resembling 
KOH  in  its  action,  but  is  less  powerful.  An  impure 
variety  of  sodium  hydroxide  is  sold  in  cans  as  "  con- 
centrated lye." 

Note.  —  Borax  is  sodium  bihorate.  It  is  found  in  nature  in  several 
lakes  in  Asia  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States.  The 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  65 

largest  source  of  borax  is  from  deposits  left  in  dried-up  lakes  in 
California.  Borax  is  used  in  cleaning,  in  soldering,  and  as  an  anti- 
septic. 

ALUMINIUM  (Al) 

Description  and  Occurrence. — The  metal  aluminium 
is  not  found  free  in  nature,  but  is  prepared  by  passing 
an  electric  current  through  a  bath  of  melted  cryolite  in 
which  aluminium  oxide  is  dissolved.  It  is  a  remark- 
ably light  metal,  very  tenacious  and  ductile,  and  takes 
a  bright  polish.  It  is  used  for  cooking  utensils  and  be- 
cause of  the  fact  that  it  does  not  form  poisonous  com- 
pounds with  foods  it  is  particularly  well  adapted  for 
such  purposes.  It  is  used  also  to  increase  the  hard- 
ness and  strength  of  brass  and  other  metals.  Alumin- 
ium is  not  an  essential  element  of  plant  food,  though 
it  is  found  in  most  plants  in  small  quantities. 

Aluminium  Oxide  (A12O3),  alumina. — This  com- 
pound is  widely  distributed,  occurring  in  ruby,  sapphire, 
and  corundum.  Its  crystals  are  very  hard,  so  that 
they  are  sometimes  used  as  substitutes  for  the  diamond 
in  cutting  glass  and  in  abrading  hard  substances. 
Emery  is  an  impure  variety  of  alumina.  The  ruby 
and  sapphire  are  pure  aluminium  oxide  tinted  with  a 
trace  of  some  other  mineral. 

Feldspar  is  a  double  silicate  of  alumina  and  an  alkali 
(K,  Na)  or  an  alkaline  earth  (Ca)  or  both.  The  feld- 
spars form  a  large  part  of  the  great  rock  masses  of  the 
earth.  When  they  are  decomposed  by  weathering  the 
carbonates  of  the  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths  are  formed, 
together  with  clay  (H4Al2Si2O9).  Thus  potassium  car- 
bonate becomes  available  for  the  use  of  plants,  while 
clay  beds  are  formed  of  the  clay  through  the  action  of 
M.  &  H.  AG.  —  5 


66  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

flowing   water.      The   various   colors   are   due   to   the 
presence  of  iron  oxides. 

SILICON  (Si) 

Silicon  does  not  occur  free  in  nature,  but  its  com- 
pounds are  very  abundant;  alone  it  makes  up  about 
one  fourth  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  Silicon  is  not 
an  important  plant  food,  the  popular  notion  that  it 
serves  to  give  stiffness  to  the  straw  of  some  of  the 
cereal  plants  being  an  error. 

Silica  (SiO2)  is  the  most  common  compound  of  silicon. 
It  occurs  in  the  form  of  sandstone,  quartz,  and  quartz 
sand.  Quartz  is  crystallized  SiO2.  It  often  has  some 
coloring  matter  in  it,  which  gives  us  the  rose  quartz, 
the  smoky  quartz,  and  the  amethyst.  The  opal  is 
uncrystallized  silica  combined  with  variable  amounts  of 
water;  flint,  agate,  and  jasper  are  imperfectly  crys- 
tallized silica. 

Glass  is  made  by  melting  together  quartz  sand,  car- 
bonate or  sulphate  of  soda  or  potash,  and  limestone 
or  lead.  CO2  is  driven  off  in  the  process,  arising  through 
the  molten  mass  in  bubbles.  The  mass  is  kept  in  liquid 
form  while  the  bubbles  are  being  formed.  A  very  clear 
glass  is  made  by  keeping  the  liquid  hot  for  some  time, 
freeing  it  from  bubbles  and  refining  it. 

Water  glass  is  made  by  melting  together  fine  sand, 
silica,  and  sodium  carbonate,  forming  sodium  silicate 
(Na2SiO3).  It  is  soluble  in  water,  and  when  it  dries  it 
leaves  a  transparent  coating  on  substances  over  which 
it  is  spread.  It  is  used  extensively  as  a  filler  in  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  stone.  A  solution  of  one 
part  water  glass  and  nine  parts  of  water  makes  one 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PLANT  FOOD  67 

of  the  best  preservatives  for  eggs.  Fresh  eggs  immersed 
in  the  solution  will  keep  for  six  months  and  longer 
without  spoiling. 

Note.  —  Giass  has  no  definite  melting  point  as  many  solids  have. 

If  a  piece  of  glass  is  heated  in  a  flame,  it  first  becomes  soft  enough 
to  bend,  then  it  may  be  pulled  out  into  a  fine  thread,  and  then  on  con- 
tinued application  of  heat,  it  turns  to  a  liquid.  Likewise,  when  it  is 
cooled  from  the  liquid  state,  it  goes  through  all  the  stages  of  change 
back  to  the  solid  state.  Crystalline  substances  usually  have  definite 
melting  points.  Substances  such  as  glass  that  have  no  definite  melting 
point  are  called  amorphous. 


CHAPTER  II 
SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

SOIL 

SOIL  is  chiefly  decomposed  and  disintegrated  or 
crumbled  up  rock.  The  main  decomposing  and  disin- 
tegrating agencies  are  air,  rain,  ice,  and  winds.  These 
agencies  are  aided  by  heat  and  chemical  action.  The 
topsail  extends  only  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  but  the  subsoil  underneath  it  varies  in 
depth  from  a  few  feet  to  a  hundred  or  more  feet. 

Kinds  of  Soil  as  to  Mechanical  Composition.  —  A* 
soil  made  up  of  very  fine  particles,  so  fine  that  the 
separate  particles  can  be  distinguished  only  by  the  help 
of  a  microscope,  is  called  a  clay  soil ;  a  soil  made  up  of 
particles  in  the  form  of  grains  is  called  sandy  soil. 
A  clay  soil  is  usually  sticky  when  wet,  does  not  disin- 
tegrate readily  on  drying,  and  is  hard  to  work,  while  a 
sandy  soil  permits  moisture  to  pass  off  readily  and  is 
not  sticky.  Silt  is  soil  made  up  of  particles  intermediate 
in  fineness  between  sand  and  clay. 

There  is  no  so-called  clay  soil  that  does  not  contain 
some  granular  particles.  The  ordinary  soils  as  we  find 
them  are  mixtures  of  clay,  sand,  silt,  and  humus.  This  ' 
may  be  readily  seen  by  putting  a  small  quantity  of  ordi- 
nary soil  in^  bottle  partly  filled  with  water  and  shaking 
it  thoroughly.  When  it  is  allowed  to  stand  the  coarser 

68 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS  69 

granular  particles  settle  at  the  bottom  very  quickly, 
the  finer  granular  particles,  or  silt,  settle  next,  and  after 
a  few  hours  the  finest  particles,  or  the  clay,  will  be  found 
on  top  of  the  other  deposits. 

A  loam  soil  is  a  mixture  of  sand,  clay,  and  silt  in  about 
equal  proportions. with  humus,  or  partly  decayed  vege- 
table and  animal  substances.  We  may  have  a  clay 
loam  or  a  sandy  loam,  according  as  the  one  or  the  other 
kind  of  particles  predominates.  All  productive  soils  con- 
tain more  or  less  humus. 

A  limy,  or  calcareous,  soil  may  come  from  the  break- 
ing up  of  limestone.  Like  clay  it  is  sticky  when  wet, 
but  crumbles  easily  when  dry. 

As  to  Deposition. — The  action  on  rocks  of  the  various 
agencies  mentioned  above  is  called  weathering.  As  a 
result  of  slow  weathering,  soils  are  formed  and  some- 
times remain  in  the  place  of  formation.  Such  soils 
are  called  sedentary.  Sedentary  soils  may  also  be  formed 
by  the  accumulation  of  organic  matter,  peat  or  humus, 
as  in  swamps  and  marshes. 

Water,  ice,  and  wind  sometimes  carry  soils  to  great 
distances  from  the  place  of  formation.  Such  are  called 
transported  soils. 

The  Amazon,  the  Nile,  and  the  Mississippi,  annually 
swollen  by  spring  rains,  sweep  to  the  seas,  scattering 
soil  over  their  adjoining  lowlands  and  depositing 
large  amounts  at  their  mouths  in  the  form  of  deltas. 
Every  rill  and  creek  and  river  duplicates  the  work 
of  these  large  rivers  in  a  degree  proportionate  to 
its  size  and  velocity  of  flow.  Glaciers,  those  "  frozen 
streams  moving  slowly,  but  irresistibly  onwards,  down 
well-defined  valleys,  grinding  and  pulverizing  the 
rock  masses  detached  by  the  force  and  weight  of 


70  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

their  onslaught," l  have  covered  desolate  and  rug- 
ged rocky  wastes  with  rich  soil.  These  two  active 
agencies  in  the  formation  and  transportation  of  soils 
-  streams  and  glaciers  —  produce  soils  varying  in 
character  and  hence  in  name,  diluvial  soil  is  due  to  the 
action  of  streams,  and  drift  soil  is  a  result  of  glacial 
action. 

Alluvial  Soils.  --These  soils  will  naturally  be  formed 
of  layers,  or  strata,  because  the  moving  water,  carrying 
as  it  does  both  coarse  and  fine  particles,  will  deposit 
both,  the  heavier,  coarser  particles  being  deposited  first. 
Successive  years  will  repeat  this  process,  hence  a  soil 
will  be  formed  of  alternate  strata  of  coarse  and  fine 
soil,  varying  in  depth,  being  more  shallow  in  the  source 
regions  of  the  stream  and  gradually  increasing  in  depth 
towards  the  mouths.  Such  soils  are  commonly  fertile, 
being  made  up  principally  of  the  finest  particles  of  soil 
of  the  basin  because  they  are  moved  the  most  easily  by 
the  running  water.  The  surface  of  these  soils  is  nat- 
urally smooth  and  level. 

Drift  Soils.  —  Drift  soils  are  made  up  of  stones  with 
a  greater  or  less  amount  of  fine  material.  There  arc 
few  strata  in  these  soils,  but  the  depth  varies  as  greatly 
as  does  that  of  alluvial  soils.  Because  of  the  varying 
nature  of  the  surface  over  which  the  glacier  has  moved, 
the  surface  of  the  drift  soil  formed  is  hilly  and  usually 
contains  many  stones. 

If  the  glacier  has  moved  over  and  ground  up 
limestone  in  its  progress,  the  drift  soil  made  is  com- 
monly productive,  but  if  the  main  rock  ground  up  has 
been  sandstone,  there  is  little  fertility  in  the  resulting 
soil. 

1  Stockbridge. 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS  71 

Note.  —  Many  thousand  years  ago  the  northern  part  of  North 
America  was  covered  by  a  great  accumulation  of  ice  and  snow,  called 
an  ice  sheet.  The 
period  of  the  for- 
mation of  this  large 
glacier  is  called  the 
Glacial  Period.  At 
that  time  conditions 
were  favorable  for 
the  accumulation  of 
a  great  depth  of  ice 
and  snow.  The 
pressure  became  so 
great  at  the  point 
of  greatest  depth 
that  the  ice  was 
forced  out  at  the 
bottom  as  a  vast 
stream.  It  ex- 
tended south  as  far 
as  the  central  part  of 
the  United  States. 
Such  great  force  had 
this  ice  stream  in  its 
motion  that  it  planed 
off  large  areas  of 
rock,  plowed  up 
hills  of  clay,  gravel,  and  bowlders,  and  transported  the  mixture  hun- 
dreds of  miles  from  its  source.  When  the  climate  changed  and  the 
ice  melted,  the  transported  material  was  left  in  places  in  the  form  of 
lines  of  hills  called  moraines,  and  in  other  places  the  surface  was  left 
comparatively  level,  forming  rolling  prairies. 


FIG.    15.  —  Map   showing  the  Area  of  North  America 
covered  by  Ice  in  the  Glacial  Period. 

(Salisbury.    Geological  Survey  of  New  Jersey.) 


Moisture  in  Soils.  —-The  soil  is  the  great  storehouse 
of  moisture.  Through  this  conservation  of  water 
which  the  plant  needs  to  hold  its  food  in  solution,  the 


72  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

earth  is  clothed  with  living  verdure.  Generally  stand- 
ing water  is  found  in  the  soil  in  large  quantites,  cither 
deep  in  the  ground,  or,  more  rarely,  near  the  surface. 
This  is  called  ground,  or  hydrostatic,  water.  When 
found  near  the  surface,  ground  water  must  be  drained 
off  in  order  that  vegetation  may  grow,  because  the 
presence  of  so  much  water  excludes  the  air  from  the 
roots  of  the  plant.  When  ground  water  exists  at  a 
moderate  depth,  from  three  to  four  feet,  it  is  helpful 
to  the  plant,  as  it  furnishes  necessary  moisture  to  the 
soil  above  without  excluding  the  air. 

The  water  that  is  most  helpful  to  plant  life  is  that 
which  surrounds  each  particle  of  soil  in  a  thin  layer,  or 
film.  This  is  called  capillary  water.  It  does  not  fill 
all  the  spaces  between  the  particles  and  thus  does  not 
shut  out  the  necessary  air,  as  does  ground  water. 
Capillary  water  passes  freely  from  particle  to  particle, 
always  from  the  more  moist  to  the  less  moist,  and  thus 
to  the  root  tips,  by  a  process  which  is  known  as  cap- 
illary action,  or  capillarity,  —  the  same  process  which 
causes  the  whole  of  a  linen  towel  to  become  wet  al- 
though only  a  small  corner  rests  in  water,  or  which 
causes  the  oil  to  rise  in  a  wick.. 

In  dry  weather  capillarity  will  draw  the  ground  water 
up  to  the  roots  of  plants  and  thus  furnish  necessary 
moisture.  Soils  never  become  so  dry  that  heating  to  a 
temperature  of  212°  F.  will  not  show  the  presence  of 
some  moisture.  This  is  known  to  the  scientist  as 
hygroscopic  water.  It  is  absorbed  from  the  air,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  heated  soil,  when  cold,  will 
regain  the  weight  lost  by  heating.  Hygroscopic  water 
clings  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  particles,  but  is  not 
capable  of  movement  as  is  capillary  water. 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS  73 

In  the  order  of  their  importance  to  the  agriculturist, 
capillary  water  ranks  first,  ground  water  second,  and 
hygroscopic  water  last. 

Capacity  of  Soils  for  Water.  —  It  is  evident  that  a 
given  soil  can  hold  enough  water  to  fill  all  the  spaces 
between  its  particles.  Experiments  have  shown  that 
a  cubic  foot  of  coarse  sand,  completely  saturated,  will 
hold  about  one  third  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  while  the 
same  bulk  of  rich  humus  soil  will  hold  about  two  thirds 
of  a  cubic  foot.  Other  soils  will  range  between  these 
two  extremes.  But  as  saturation,  or  the  complete 
filling  of  the  spaces  between  the  particles,  prevents  the 
air  from  penetrating  the  soil,  the  question  of  importance 
to  the  farmer  is,  not  how  much  water  the  different  kinds 
of  soil  can  hold,  but  what  are  their  different  capacities 
for  capillary  water,  or  how  much  water  will  they  hold 
when  all  the  free  water  is  allowed  to  drain  out. 

As  capillary  water  clings  to  the  surface  of  soil  par- 
ticles, it  is  plain  that  the  greater  the  number  of  particles, 
the  greater  will  be  the  extent  of  surface  to  be  covered 
with  water.  In  other  words,  the  finer  the  particles,  the 
greater  the  power  of  the  soil  to  hold  capillary  water. 
An  understanding  of  this  will  enable  us  to  see  that 
coarse  sand  will  retain  but  little  capillary  water,  while 
a  clay  loam,  rich  in  humus,  will  retain  a  large  amount. 
Obviously,  the  desirable  soil  for  growing  crops,  other 
things  being  equal,  is  one  that  will  retain  a  large  amount 
of  capillary  water  with  a  subsoil  that  holds  the  ground 
water  near  enough  to  the  surface  to  be  made  available 
for  replacing  the  loss  by  plant  use  and  evaporation. 

Amount  of  Water  needed  by  Plants.  —  It  requires 
an  enormous  quantity  of  water  to  mature  a  crop. 
Various  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  exaet  amount 


74  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

of  water  needed  to  produce  a  pound  of  dry  matter 
of  the  different  grains,  the  figures  showing  that  oats 
require  about  five  hundred  pounds  and  corn  about 
two  hundred  seventy-seven  pounds.  The  other  grains 
use  amounts  somewhere  between  these  two.  This 
water,  having  accomplished  its  work  of  bringing  plant 
food  to  the  leaves,  is  by  them  passed  off  into  the  air. 
The  soil  also  loses  moisture  by  direct  evaporation  from 
its  surface,  especially  during  dry,  hot,  windy  weather; 
hence  the  supply  of  water  to  the  soil  must  replace  the 
losses  through  the  plants  and  through  evaporation  if 
vegetation  is  to  thrive.  It  is  estimated  that  each  ton 
of  dry  crop  material  on  an  acre  requires  four  inches  of 
water.  If,  then,  five  tons  of  hay  are  to  be  produced 
from  an  acre,  a  rainfall  of  twenty  inches,  or  its  equiva- 
lent, must  be  provided. 

Conservation  of  Soil  Water.  —  To  reduce  the  loss 
of  soil  water  by  evaporation,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
conserve  the  moisture  already  in  the  soil,  is  a  necessity 
in  regions  where  at  least  twenty  inches  of  water  does 
not  fall  annually,  and  it  is  also  of  great  benefit  to  the 
growing  crop,  even  where  the  rainfall  is  greater  than 
twenty  inches.  The  most  effective  agent  in  this 
conservation  is  cultivation.  This  breaks  up  the  soil 
at  the  surface  and  hastens  evaporation  there,  but  the 
dry  soil  above,  through  which  capillarity  acts  very 
slowly,  serves  to  keep  the  soil  moist  below  and  thus  the 
roots  are  kept  supplied  with  moisture.  When  the  next 
rain  comes,  the  loose  surface  soil  will  allow  the  water 
to  percolate  freely  through  it  to  the  soil  below,  for 
gravity  tends  to  draw  free  water  downward.  Breaking 
up  the  surface  of  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of  conserving 
the  moisture  is  called  forming  a  dirt  mulch,  or  a  dust 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS  75 

mulch.  Loose  straw  or  any  other  coarse  mulch  will 
also  prevent  surface  evaporation. 

Oversupply  of  Water  in  the  Soil. --The  growth  of 
vegetation  is  retarded  by  too  much  water  as  well  as 
by  an  insufficient  quantity,  for,  as  stated  on  page  72, 
an  oversupply  of  water,  by  filling  all  the  spaces  between 
the  particles,  will  exclude  the  air,  which  is  as  necessary 
to  the  life  of  the  plant  as  is  water,  and  is  also  necessary 
to  the  microscopic  vegetable  life  of  the  soil,  a  life  that 
is  very  beneficial  to  plant  growth. 

Too  much  water  will  reduce  the  temperature  of  the 
soil,  and  thus  hinder  growth. 

Another  harmful  effect  is  the  failure  of  roots  to  strike 
deep  into  overwet  soil,  for  the  plant  has  little  chance 
for  life  if  the  topsoil  later  becomes  dry. 

Soil  that  is  too  moist  cannot  be  cultivated  as  it  should 
be,  and  thus  weeds  have  free  growth,  and  every  weed 
grown  deprives  a  useful  plant  of  food. 

Effects  of  Cultivation  on  Soil.  —  Cultivation,  or 
tillage,  is  the  breaking  up  or  crumbling  of  the  soil  by 
means  of  the  plow  or  other  implement,  either  before  or 
after  seeding.  There  are  five  beneficial  effects  of  cul- 
tivation : 

1.  It  crumbles  and  mellows  the  soil. 

2.  It  causes   more   rapid    and  greater   formation   of 
soluble  plant  food. 

3.  It  lessens  evaporation  of  soil  water. 

4.  It  kills  weeds. 

5.  It  makes  possible  better  aeration  of  the  soil. 

(1)  When  the  soil  is  thoroughly  crumbled,  roots  can 
find  their  way  through  it  with  ease ;  thus  tillage  will 
help  to  form  an  extensive  root  system  for  crops. 

(2)  This  stirring  and  breaking  up  of  the  soil  allows 


76  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

the  roots  to  come  in  contact  with  a  greater  number  of 
new  soil  particles,  and  thus  a  much  larger  surface  is 
open  to  the  action  of  the  root  hairs.  As  a  consequence  of 
this,  a  greater  supply  of  plant  food  is  rendered  available. 

(3)  Forming  a  dirt  mulch  by  cultivation  and    thus 
decreasing  the  evaporation  of  soil  water  has   already 
been  discussed.     It  is  equally  true  that  evaporation  at 
the  surface  will  be  increased  by  tillage,  but  then  little 
of  this  water  would  be  available  to  the  roots,  and  the 
formation  of  the  dust  mulch  will  conserve  the  moisture 
that  is  deeper  in  the  soil,  that  is,  near  the  roots. 

(4)  Weeds  are  harmful  because    they  take  for  their 
own  sustenance  what  more  useful  plants  require.     They 
are  greedy  eaters  and  hard  drinkers.     Cultivation  at 
the  right  times  uproots  and  destroys  these,  and  thus 
saves  the  nourishment  and  moisture  in  the  soil  for  the 
growing  plants. 

(5)  The  beneficial  effects  of  aeration,  or  admitting 
air  to  the  soil,  have  been  referred  to  before,  but  not 
explained.     The  oxygen  of  the  air  combines  with  the 
carbon  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  forming 
carbonic  acid,  which  is  a  powerful  solvent  of  some  of 
the  compounds  of  the  soil.     The  breaking  up  of  some 
of  these  compounds  makes  possible  the  formation  of 
other   more   soluble   compounds,  and  thus  contributes 
directly  to  plant  growth. 

Note.  —  Microscopic  plants  abound  in  the  soil.  They  are  called 
bacteria.  They  need  air  for  growth.  These  bacteria  are  beneficial  in 
that  they  cause  decay  of  plant  and  animal  bodies  in  the  soil  and  thus 
increase  the  supply  of  humus.  They  are  useful  in  forming  soluble 
nitrates  from  the  various  insoluble  nitrogen  compounds  in  the  soil,  and 
thus  render  available  an  important  plant  food.  Tillage,  by  supplying 
more  air  to  the  soil,  promotes  the  growth  and  work  of  these  organisms. 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS  77 

Tillage  Implements.  —  The  spade,  the  hoe,  and  the 
rake  are  the  principal  tillage  implements  for  small 
tracts  or  small  garden  plots,  but  for  the  farm  or  the  large 
garden,  implements  worked  otherwise  than  by  hand  are 
used.  Horses  and  oxen  have  furnished  the  power  for 
farm  tillage  for  many  centuries,  but  now  these  animals 
are  often  superseded  by  steam  or  gas  engines. 

The  Plow.  —  One  of  the  most  ancient  of  farm  im- 
plements is  the  plow.  At  first  a  crooked  stick  drawn 
by  a  slave  or  by  cattle,  it  has  developed  into  the  per- 
fectly formed  steel  plow  often  pulled  in  groups  or 
gangs  by  large  steam  or  gas  engines.  The  plow  as  we 
ordinarily  think  of  it  is  the  moldboard  plow.  There 
are  many  types  of  this  plow,  depending  on  the  special 
use  to  which  the  plow  is  placed.  The  general  purpose 


MOLDBOARD 
SHARE 

POINT 


BEAM 


FIG.  16.  —  General  Purpose  Plow.i 

plow  which  is  shown  here  might  be  used  for  all  kinds  of 
work  if  other  forms  were  not  available. 

The  breaking  plow  has   a   much   longer  moldboard 

JThe  part  of  the  plow  on  the  other  side  of  the  share  receiving  the 
pressure  when  the  furrow  is  turned  is  called  the  landside.  It  is  not 
shown  in  the  illustration. 


78  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

that  turns  the  sod  over  without  crumbling  it,  while  the 
stubble  plow  has  a  steeper  and  shorter  moldboard  that 
breaks  up  the  soil  and  throws  it  over  in  a  crumbled  mass. 


GUAGE 
WHEEL 
COULTER 
FIG.  17.  — Breaking  Plow. 

Some  object  to  the  moldboard  plow  because  the 
cutting  edge  and  the  heel  of  the  plow  slide  along  over 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  smooth  or  plaster  down 
the  moist  earth  so  that  it  is  more  difficult  for  moisture 


FIG.  18.  —  Disk  Plow. 


to  get  from  the  subsoil  to  the  plowed  surface.     This 
action  is  avoided  in  the  disk  plows  that  have  come  into 
use  within  the  past  few  years. 
The   disk   plow   cuts   the   soil,    pushes    it   over,  and 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


79 


crumbles  it.     It  may  be  used  where  the  soil  is  too  hard 

or    too    sticky    for 

the    successful  use 

of    the    moldboard 

type. 

The  subsoil  plow 
is  intended  to  fol- 
low after  the  regu- 

i  i  j  FIG.  IQ.  —  Subsoil  Plow. 

lar    plow    and    to 

loosen  the  subsoil  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.    The 

subsoil  may  con- 
tain a  large  amount 
of  plant  food,  but 
it  is  usually  not 
immediately  avail- 
able for  the  plant. 
If  it  were  thrown 
on  top,  it  might 
require  some  time 
before  the  air  and 
the  sun  could  act 
on  it  and  make 
available  its  food 
material.  The 
subsoil  plow 
loosens  the  soil 
and  aerates  it 
without  checking 
plant  growth  by 
throwing  the  soil 
on  top. 

There  are  some  deep  tillage  machines  on  the  mar- 
ket now  in  response  to  a  demand  of  deeper  tillage. 


FIG.  20.  —  Deep  Tillage  Machine. 


8o 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


One  of  the  most  successful  of  these  machines  consists 
of  two  disks,  one  lower  than  the  other  and  running  in 
different  lines.  The  first  cuts  a  slice  of  surface  and 
turns  it  into  the  deep  furrow  at  its  right.  The  second 
disk  running  deeper  throws  the  under  portion  over  and 


CAPILLARITY 
BROKEN  AT  PLANE 
OF  MAXIMUM 
AMOUNT  OF  AIR 
AND  MOISTURE 

I 


FIG.  21.  —  Shallow  Plowing  for  Cereals. 

against  the  furrow  turned  by  the  first  disk,  both  turn- 
ing and  pulverizing  the  soil.  All  trash  and  surface 
weeds  are  thus  effectually  buried. 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


8l 


Depth  of  Plowing.  —  How  deep  one  should  plow  de- 
pends on  so  many  conditions  that  it  is  impossible  to 
answer  the  question  directly.  The  locality,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil  and  the 
amount  that  maybe  expected  during  the  growing  season, 
and  the  crop  to  be  raised  are  all  factors  that  should  be 
carefully  considered  in  answering  the  question.  The 
tendency  at  present  is  toward  deeper  plowing,  but  deep 
tillage  is  not  the  best  for  all  conditions. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  that  depth  of  plowing 
is  best  which  furnishes  the  plant  during  its  growth  with 
the  greatest  amount  of  air  and  moisture.  The  subsoil 
is  usually  moist,  and  it  conveys  the  ground  water  to  the 
topsoil.  If  the  topsoil  is  plowed  to  such  a  depth  that 
the  roots  of  the  plant  can  spread  out  on  the  moist  soil 


FIG.  22. — -Furrow  as  the  Plow  leaves  it. 


immediately  under  the  plowed  surface,  then  the  roots 
will  get  both  the  moisture  and  the  air  in  the  loosened 
and  crumbled  plowed  soil. 

The  cereals  and  grasses  are  shallow  feeding  plants. 

M.  &  H.  AG. 6 


82 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


These  plants,  then,  are  often  best  served  by  shallow 
plowing  —  a  depth  of  from  three  to  six  inches  being 
sufficient.  The  corn  plant,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a 
more  extensive  and  deeper  system  of  roots  and  thrives 
better  on  plowing  not  less  than  eight  inches  in  depth. 
For  the  alfalfa  plant,  which  has  a  long  tap  root,  the  plow- 
ing need  not  be  limited  as  to  depth. 

Connection  with  Subsoil.  —  Whatever  the  depth  of 
planting  determined  on   as    best,  the  plowed   surface 

should  be  brought  into 
close  contact  with  the 
subsoil  so  that  capillarity 
which  was  broken  by  the 
plowing  may  be  reestab- 
lished. The  sod  or  the 
trash  that  is  turned  under 
often  keeps  the  plowed 

FIG.  23. — Roller.  -i   r  • 

soil  from  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  undersoil.  The  plowed  surface  then 
soon  dries  out  and  crop  raising  is  almost  an  impos- 


FIG.  24.  —  Soil  as  the  Packer  leaves  it. 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS  83 

sibility.  To  press  the  plowed  soil  down  hard  against 
the  subsoil  so  that  it  may  get  its  moisture  from  the  sub- 
soil, many  farmers  have  used  the  heavy  roller  success- 
fully. The  roller  also  crushes  the  clods  on  the  surface, 


-PLOWED  /SOIL 
;  NOT   HARROWED 


PLOWED    SOIL 


SUBSOIL 


FIG.  25. — A,  Soil  as  left  by  the  Harrow ;  B  the  Same  Soil  packed  by  Rain. 

so  that  evaporation  takes  place  rapidly  and  much  soil 
moisture  is  lost  unless  the  surface  be  harrowed  to  pre- 


FIG/  26.  —  Harrow. 


vent  it.     If  the  surface  is  very  cloddy,  the  heavy  roller 
may  be  a  necessity. 

Another  implement  has  been  invented,  called  a  sub- 


84  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

surface  packer,  which  accomplishes  all  that  the  roller 
accomplishes  in  packing  the  soil  without  destroying  the 
crumbly  condition  of  the  surface.  (See  Figure  35.) 

The  Harrow.  -  -  The  harrow  should  follow  the  plow 
as  soon  as  possible.  It  is  better  to  harrow  land  after 
plowing  before  the  surface  has  dried.  When  the  soil 


FIG.  27.  — Acme  Harrow. 

is  freshly  turned  over,  the  harrow  can  pulverize  it 
more  easily  and  prevent  the  formation  of  large  clods. 
Some  attach  the  harrow  behind  the  sulky  or  driving 
gang  plow  and  perform  both  operations  at  once.  The 
harrow  should  be  used  after  a  heavy  packing  rain,  even 
though  the  seed  bed  may  have  been  thoroughly  pre- 
pared. A  rain  storm  packs  and  settles  the  tilled  soil, 
which  on  drying  forms  a  crust  that  must  be  broken  up 
to  form  a  soil  mulch  and  prevent  the  evaporation  of  soil 
moisture. 

The  spike-toothed  harrow  is  the  most  common  form 
of  harrow,  and  some  farmers  have  no  other  kind.  It  is 
used  for  fining  the  surface,  breaking  up  clods,  and  level- 
ing the  surface. 

The  spikes  may  be  driven  through  a  wooden  frame, 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


or  they  may  be  placed  in  an  iron  frame.  A  lever  is 
usually  attached  so  that  the  spikes  or  teeth  may  be  held 
vertically,  or  they 
may  be  made  to 
slant  at  any  de- 
sired angle  back- 
ward. This  regu- 
lates the  depth  to 
which  the  spikes 
enter  the  earth. 

A  curved  knife- 
toothed  harrow, 
also  called  the  FlG- 28'  ~  sPrins-tooth  Harrow- 

Acme  harrow,  cuts  and  pulverizes  the  soil  and  is  known 
as  a  pulverizer. 

The  spring-tooth  harrow  also  pulverizes  and  culti- 
vates the  topsoil.  It  is  often  used  in  stony  ground,  or 
ground  in  which  stumps  and  roots  of  trees  abound. 

When  the  tooth 
catches  on  an 
obstruction,  it 
springs  back  and 
releases  itself. 

The  disk  har- 
row is  a  very 
effective  imple- 
ment for  pulver- 
izing and  loos- 
ening up  the 
ground.  The 
disks  cut  the  clods,  and  mix  and  push  to  one  side  the  top- 
soil.  The  two  sets  of  disks  are  set  at  an  angle,  both  sets 
pushing  the  soil  away  from  the  center.  This  usually 


FIG.  29.  — •  Disk  Harrow. 


86 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


leaves  the  field  in  an  uneven  condition.  It  is  a  common 
practice  in  disking  to  lap  over  one  half  the  distance 
each  time  so  that  the  ground  may  be  left  practically 
level. 

The  disk  harrow  is  a  good  weed  exterminator  and  is 
often  used  instead  of  the  plow  when  shallow  tillage  is 
desired,  as  when  oats  follow  corn  in  rotation. 

Other  forms  of  disk  harrows  having  special  uses  are 

the  cutaway  har- 
row and  the  spad- 
ing harrow. 

DRAINAGE 

Land  is  never  in 
perfect  condition 
unless  well  drained ; 
that  is  to  say,  un- 
less all  the  water 
that  falls  on  it  or 
flows  over  it  can 
soak  down  to  the 
minimum  depth 
needed  for  the  de- 
velopment of  grow- 
ing crops  and  then 
find  vent,  either 
through  a  naturally 
porous  soil  or  by 
artificial  channels. 
The  housewife  makes  a  practical  application  of  this 
principle  when  she  puts  her  house  plants  in  a  flower 
pot  which  has  a  hole  in  the  bottom.  Without  this 


FIG.  30.  —  Opening  a  Ditch  with  a  Plow. 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


vent  for  the  water  to  pass  off  after  the  soil  is  saturated, 
the  plant  would  not  thrive,  for,  as  we  know,  excess  of 
moisture  is  fatal  to  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

Methods  of  Drainage.  —  Probably  the  most  commonly 
used  artificial  method  of  draining  is  the  surface  ditch, 
sometimes  called  open  drainage,  in  contrast  to  the  closed 
drainage,  or  tiling  system.  The  first  seems  the  more 


FARM  OF 

Aug.  Samuelson 

LAFAYETTE,  MINN. 

NICOLLET  Co. 


FIG.  31.  —  Drainage  Plan  of  a  Farm. 


economical  because  its  first  cost  is  cheaper,  but  it  is 
usually  more  expensive  in  the  end.  The  cost  of  digging 
a  trench  is  less  than  that  of  .laying  tile,  but  when  once 
properly  laid,  tiles  last  for  years  and  do  not  fill  up, 
while  ditches  demand  labor  each  year  to  keep  them  in 


88 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


good  condition.  Then,  too,  tiling,  being  laid  under- 
ground, is  out  of  the  way  of  tillage  implements  and  does 
not  necessitate  the  waste  of  any  land. 

The  depth  to  which  tile  should  be  laid  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  soil,  compact  soil  requiring  deeper 
drainage  than  loose  soil.  Tile  from  three  to  six  inches 
in  diameter,  laid  from  three  to  four  feet  deep  and  ninety 
feet  apart  will,  under  ordinary  conditions,  remove  the 
surplus  water  from  an  area  of  eighty  acres. 

Open  ditches  are  often  constructed  either  entirely  or 
partly  with  the  aid  of  a  plow  and  a  scraper.  The  plow 
is  used  first  to  make  as  deep  a  furrow  as  possible  and  to 
loosen  the  earth,  then  the  scraper  is  used  to  clean  out 


'^>££>    -3 

•*'&*.$•-  '    •'        ^gWgj 


FIG.  32. — -Surveying  for  a  Line  of  Drain  Tile  with  a  Home-made  Level. 

the  loose  earth.  Ditch-digging  machines  propelled  by 
horses  or  by  a  steam  or  a  gas  engine  are  used  in  locali- 
ties where  much  draining  is  ne  essary.  Closed  ditches  for 
tile  are  commonly  dug  by  ditchers  with  long-handled 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


89 


shovels  and  spades.  The  ditches  are  made  just  wide 
enough  to  work  in. 

As  it  is  necessary  for  the  ditch  to  be  dug  so  that  the 
tile  laid  in  it  shall  have  a  uniform  slant  or  fall  from  the 
highest  point  to  be  drained  to  the  outlet,  it  is  essential 
that  a  careful  survey  of  the  land  be  first  made  by  one 
who  understands  drainage  engineering  if  the  fall  be 
very  slight.  If  there  is  a  considerable  fall,  a  farmer  who 
can  use  a  level  can  do  sufficiently  accurate  work  for 
practical  purposes. 

He  maps  out  the  location  of  the  drains  and,  by  means 
of  an  instrument  called  a  level,  determines  at  what 
depth  the  ditch  must  be  dug  over  its  entire  course.  If 
this  work  is  not  accurately  done,  or  if  his  directions  are 
not  carefully  followed  by  the  ditch  diggers,  the  tile 
may  become  clogged  up  and  thus  be  rendered  useless. 

After  the  tiles  are  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  fitted 
end  to  end  as  closely  as  possible,  the  ditch  is  filled  in 
with  dirt,  usually  with  a  scraper  and  a  team  of  horses. 

Note.  —  Some  may  be  puzzled  to  know  how  the  water  gets  into 
the  tile.  The  tile  is  not  like  a  long  pipe  to  take  water  in  at  one  end 
and  discharge  it  at  the  other.  It  rather  serves  as  a  means  of  directing 


DRAINAGE 
ATER 


FIG.  33.  —  Water  seeps  in  at  the  Joints. 


the  flow  of  water  in  the  soil  through  which  it  is  laid.  Water  finds 
this  passageway  through  the  fact  that  the  tiles  placed  end  to  end  are  not 
fitted  water-tight.  The  water  seeps  in  at  these  slight  openings,  and 


90  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

having  a  course  with  uniform  fall  to  the  outlet,  it  passes  on  till  dis- 
charged. The  upper  end  of  the  tiling  system  is  not  open.  The  out- 
let is  the  end  that  must  be  kept  open  and  free  from  obstruction. 

IRRIGATION 

In  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  other  countries,  are 
vast  tracts  of  land  where  rain  seldom  falls.  There  are 
other  large  tracts  where  rain  falls  during  certain  portions 
of  the  year,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  them 
productive.  (In  fact  in  very  few  portions  of  our  coun- 
try is  there  moisture  enough  in  every  season  to  insure 
the  maximum  crops.)  From  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains  the  amount  of  water  precipitated 
annually  gradually  decreases,  the  extreme  western  por- 
tion of  this  area  being  arid  or  semi-arid  in  character, 
because  of  lack  of  moisture.  The  last  half  century  has 
seen  the  unproductiveness  of  nature  supplemented  by 
man's  work,  in  that  a  way  has  been  found  to  supply  the 
needed  water  to  these  arid  wastes.  The  process  by 
which  water  is  supplied,  other  than  by  natural  means,  is 
called  irrigation. 

Sources  of  Water  Supply.  —  Water  for  this  purpose 
is  often  obtained  from  wells,  ponds,  lakes,  and  springs. 
Sewage  from  cities  is  sometimes  used  on  farms  lying  near, 
but  most  of  the  water  used  comes  from  streams.  When 
there  is  any  likelihood  that  the  stream  from  which  water 
is  taken  will  dry  up  during  the  season  when  water  is 
needed,  reservoirs  are  built  so  that  a  greater  part  of  the 
winter  rainfall  may  be  stored. 

Uses  of  Irrigation.  -  -  The  water  applied  by  irrigation 
may  be  useful  to  the  plant  in  two  ways  :  First,  it  may 
be  of  direct  benefit  in  dissolving  and  carrying  into  the 
plant  the  various  foods  found  in  the  soil  particles. 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS  91 

Second,  when  underdrainage  has  been  provided  for, 
either  naturally  or  artificially,  irrigation  may  be  useful 
in  removing  from  the  soil  the  excess  of  mineral  salts 
(usually  termed  alkalies),  when  such  are  present.  Such 
excess  is  often  found  in  the  arid  regions  and  in  lands 
which  were  once  covered  by  the  sea,  such  as  reclaimed 
sea  marshes. 

Soils  that  are  not  apparently  alkaline' naturally  have 
often  become  so  after  they  have  been  irrigated  for 
some  time  without  good  underdrainage.  How  this  is 
brought  about  may  be  shown  by  using  in  the  last  experi- 
ment a  can  which  will  not  leak  at  the  bottom,  and 
supplying  water  from  the  top,  being  careful  not  to  add 
too  much  water  at  one  time. 

Note.  —  The  best  water  for  irrigation  purposes  is  that  which  carries 
a  large  amount  of  plant  food,  either  in  solution  or  suspension,  and  is 
of  a  temperature  sufficiently  high  'not  to  check  the  growth  of  vegeta- 
tion. Rivers  whose  waters  are  muddy  are  often  the  best  for  irrigation 
supply,  because  the  muddiness  indicates  a  large  amount  of  fine  silt, 
which  will  enrich  the  soil  it  is  spread  over,  especially  if  that  soil  is  a 
sandy  one. 

Suggestive  Experiments.  —  (/?)  To  show  how  inland  soils  may 
become  alkaline,  mix  a  little  soda  with  some  wet,  fine  sandy  loam  or 
clay.  Place  it  in  a  box  and  let  the  top  dry,  but  keep  the  bottom 
moist.  Observe  the  gradual  accumulation  of  soda  on  the  surface. 

The  soda,  corresponding  to  the  plant  foods  scattered  throughout  the 
soil,  is  taken  into  solution  by  the  water  as  it  rises  through  the  soil 
by  capillarity  and  is  left  on  the  top  as  this  water  evaporates  at  the 
surface. 

(/£)  That  irrigation  in  connection  with  underdrainage  may  be 
useful  in  removing  this  excess  of  salts  from  the  soil  may  be  shown  as 
follows :  Prepare  an  alkali  soil  by  mixing  potash  or  soda  with  dry, 
sandy  soil.  Test  it  with  blue  litmus  paper  to  see  if  it  is  sufficiently 
alkaline  to  change  the  color.  Place  this  soil  in  a  tin  can  having  holes 


92  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

in  the  bottom  through  which  the  water  may  find  vent.  Set  the  can 
in  a  dish,  pour  water  on  the  soil  from  the  top,  and  test  that  which 
drains  through  with  the  litmus  paper. 

Methods  of  Irrigation.  —  Various  approved  methods 
of  applying  water  by  irrigation  are  in  use  in  different 
regions,  but  those  most  used  are  sprinkling,  flooding, 
furrowing,  and  tiling. 

Sprinkling. — Of  the  four  methods  named,  sprinkling 
most  nearly  resembles  the  means  by  which  nature 
furnishes  water  to  growing  plants.  In  spite  of  this  fact, 
sprinkling  is  the  poorest  of  the  methods  named.  To 
apply  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  at  one  time  by  this 
method  requires  a  very  slow  application,  for,  if  applied 
too  rapidly,  the  ground,  if  it  is  not  sandy,  becomes  packed 
and  hardened.  In  this  condition  sufficient  air,  which 
the  plant  needs,  cannot  get  through  the  soil  and  the 
penetration  of  the  roots  is  also  difficult.  There  is  also 
very  rapid  evaporation  from  the  surface  unless  the  soil 
is  stirred  soon  after  sprinkling.  This  results  in  great 
waste  of  water  and  renders  a  second  application  neces- 
sary in  a  short  time.  If  practiced  in  a  region  where 
there  is  no  rainfall  through  the  summer,  it  must  be 
repeated  often  and  a  sufficient  amount  given  to  saturate 
the  soil  to  a  considerable  depth ;  otherwise,  the  plant 
will  develop  a  shallow  root  system  and  will  be  largely 
dependent  upon  water  thus  applied  all  through  the 
growing  season. 

Flooding.  —  By  this  method  water  is  spread  over  the 
field  in  as  even  a  sheet  as  possible.  It  can  be  used  only 
where  an  abundance  of  water  is  available  and  where  the 
land  to  be  irrigated  is  naturally  quite  level  or  can  be 
made  so.  As  in  the  case  of  sprinkling,  there  will  be 
rapid  evaporation  unless  the  surface  of  the  soil  is 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


93 


stirred  soon  after  the  water  is  applied.  A  great  dis- 
advantage in  this  method  is  the  great  length  of  time 
necessary  to  apply  water  in  sufficient  amount.  This  is 
necessarily  so  because  of  the  fact  that  the  air  in  the  soil 
prevents,  after  a  little,  the  rapid  penetration  of  the 
water,  as  the  increasing  weight  of  the  water  above  pre- 
vents the  escape  of  the  air  in  that  direction. 

Furrowing.  —  This  method  is  the  one  most  commonly 
used  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States.  Small 
furrows  are  dug  through  the  land,  the  depth  and  dis- 


FIG.  34.  —  Irrigation  by  Furrows. 

tance  apart  varying  with  the  soil.  The  more  porous 
soils  require  a  greater  number  of  furrows  than  clay  or 
silt.  The  furrows  must  slant  a  little,  but  not  enough  to 
make  a  rapid  flow  of  water  or  there  will  be  washing. 

One  of  the  chief  advantages  of  this  method  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  water  can  soak  into  the  soil  so  that  the 
lower  strata  become  so  thoroughly  saturated  that  a  deep 


94  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

rooting  system  is  developed.  By  this  method  water 
reaches  the  surface  of  the  ground  only  by  capillarity, 
hence  the  soil  does  not  become  so  packed  as  to  exclude 
the  air  and  hinder  root  penetration.  The  furrows 
should  usually  be  run  three  to  eight  feet  apart,  de- 
pending, as  stated  above,  on  the  texture  of  the  soil 
and  the  consequent  readiness  with  which  the  water 
penetrates  it.  This  point  may  easily  be  determined 
by  experiment  before  the  furrows  are  laid  out. 

After  the  water  has  been  shut  off  from  the  furrows  and 
the  surface  has  become  dry  enough,  the  furrows  should 
be  filled  again  to  prevent  rapid  evaporation.  Losses 
due  to  this  cause  often  amount  to  as  much  as  50  per 
cent  of  the  water  applied. 

Suggestive  Experiment.  —  To  illustrate  how  irrigating  furrows 
moisten  the  soil  laterally,  bore  a  hole  in  the. middle  of  one  side  of  a  box 
near  the  bottom  and  plug  it  up.  Fill  the  box  nearly  full  of  dry,  finely 
crumbled  soil.  Make  a  shallow  groove,  or  trench,  across  the  middle 
of  the  soil.  Slowly  pour  water  into  it  until  the  soil  at  the  bottom 
of  the  box  is  damp.  This  can  be  ascertained  by  removing  the  plug  and 
thrusting  a  small  stick  into  the  hole.  Remove  a  layer  of  two  or  three 
inches  of  soil  near  the  trench  and  notice  how  far  from  the  trench  the 
water  has  extended  by  capillary  action.  Continue  removing  layers  of 
two  or  three  inches,  and  notice  the  difference  in  lateral  extent  of  mois- 
ture at  different  depths. 

Tiling  or  Subirrigation.  —  What  is  considered  by  some 
experts  to  be  the  climax  of  scientific  irrigation  and  at 
the  same  time  the  most  economical  method,  is  the  laying 
of  porous  tile  pipe  under  the  ground.  Some  writer* 
call  this  subirrigation.  The  principle  is  the  opposite 
of  that  applied  in  drainage  in  that  the  pores  and  joints 
of  the  pipes  give  out  sufficient  water  to  supply  the  plant 
life  above  them.  This  plan  is  considered  practicable 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


95 


in  supplying  moisture  for  fruit  trees,  vegetables,  berries, 
and  almost  every  other  kind  of  product,  the  advantage 
being  that  the  water  carried  by  the  pipes  is  discharged 
directly  below  the  roots  of  the  plants  instead  of  on  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  Less  water  is  required  because 
there  is  no  loss  by  evaporation,  but  the  expense  of  laying 
the  pipe  is  great.  If  the  lines  of  tiles  can  be  laid  so  that 
they  open  out  of  one  ditch  and  can  be  readily  filled  by 
turning  the  water  into  the  ditch,  the  labor  cost  of  irri- 
gation will  be  kept  at  a  minimum. 


DRY  FARMING 

In  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States,  where  the  rainfall  for  the  entire  year  is 
not  sufficient  for 
maturing  a  crop,  a 
system  of  cultivat- 
ing known  as  dry 
farming  is  being 
practiced.  It 
should  not  be  in- 
ferred from  the 
name  that  by  this 
system  plants  will 
subsist  on  smaller 
quantities  of  water 
than  in  other  cases. 
The  system  con- 
sists in  Carefully  FIG.  35.  —  Subsurface  Packer. 

conserving    the 

moisture  that  falls  during  the  entire  year  by  summer 

tillage.     During  this  year  the  land  is  not  sowed  to  crops, 


96  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

but  is  so  treated  as  to  permit  of  a  very  small  amount  of 
evaporation.  The  surface  is  constantly  kept  loose, 
being  tilled  after  each  rain  of  any  considerable  amount. 
A  dirt  mulch  is  thus  formed  which  reduces  evaporation 
to  a  minimum,  and  by  the  use  of  a  subsurface  packer 
capillary  action  is  stimulated  so  that  moisture  is  brought 
up  from  the  subsoil  to  the  seeds  or  roots  of  the  plants. 
After  the  crop  is  planted,  the  soil  is  kept  loose  at  the 
surface  until  the  crop  is  matured.  The  moisture  con- 
served through  one  year  by  this  system  is  often  sufficient 
for  the  maturing  of  crops  through  the  next  year.  A 
farmer  in  the  arid  region  having  a  32O-acre  farm  would, 
then,  have  160  acres  in  crop  each  year  and  160  acres 
lying  fallow,  that  is,  unused  by  a  crop,  but  tilled  during 
the  summer.  The  system  is  often  called  the  Campbell 
system,  after  its  originator. 

The  principles  of  dry  farming  might  be  put  to 
good  use  in  both  arid  regions  and  those  where  there 
is  a  good  winter  rainfall.  In  the  former  areas  one 
application  of  water  would  be  enough  for  the  entire 
season.  In  areas  having  a  winter  rainfall  the  moisture 
might  be  so  conserved  that  irrigation  would  be  un- 
necessary. 

Amount  of  Water  needed  in  Irrigation.  —  Some  au- 
thorities claim  that  fifty  thousand  gallons  an  acre  are 
necessary  to  mature  a  farm  crop  by  irrigation,  but  so 
much  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the 
subsoil,  and  also  upon  the  climate  and  the  crop  to  be 
raised,  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  accurate  estimates. 
If  the  climate  is  humid,  less  water  will  be  required  than 
in  a  dry  climate.  It  is  better  to  apply  a  moderate 
amount  at  intervals  of  several  days  than  to  put  too  much 
on  at  a  time. 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


97 


Reservoirs.  —  As  the  flow  of  water  in  streams  is  at 
some  seasons  of  the  year  overabundant  for  irrigating 
purposes  and  at  other  times  there  is  a  scarcity,  dams  and 
reservoirs  are  built  to  hold  back  and  save  the  water  for  a 


FIG.  36.  — •  Storage  Reservoir. 

time  of  drought.  The  United  States  government  is 
helping  in  this  work  on  a  large  scale  by  building  large 
storage  reservoirs  in  the  West.  By  this  means  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  desert  land  have  been  reclaimed  and 
many  more  will  be  as  the  work  progresses.  In. more 
humid  regions  the  damming  of  a  small  creek  or  river 
might  save  the  farmers  of  the  vicinity  much  loss  from 
drought.  The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  has  done 
more  than  this.  Water  was  pumped  from  a  depth  of 
about  twenty-five  feet  by  burning  coal  at  five  dollars 
a  ton  and  the  added  expense  has  been  more  than  met 
by  the  increased  yield  of  crops. 

Limitation   to   the    Use    of   Irrigation.  —  All   surface 


M.  &  H.  AG. 7 


98  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

systems  of  irrigation  interfere  somewhat  with  the  use 
of  farm  machinery,  and  the  initial  cost  of  any  sys- 
tem is  considerable,  as  is  the  labor  cost  of  working 
it.  These  last  two  objections  have  prevented  the  in- 
stallation of  the  system  in  regions  which  are  already 
fairly  productive,  and  restricted  its  use  largely  to 
areas  which  but  for  irrigation  would  be  arid  wastes. 
In  spite  of  cost,  however,  the  increased  yield  from 
its  use,  with  fairly  fertile  as  well  as  barren  lands,  is 
so  great  that  it  will  repay  the  expenditure  many  times 
over. 

SOIL  FERTILITY 

The  main  agricultural  question  of  the  humid  sections 
is  that  of  maintaining  soil  fertility,  or  of  restoring  lands 
depleted  of  fertility  to  their  former  crop-producing 
power. 

The  broad  areas  of  virgin  soil  in  the  United  States, 
which  yield  abundantly  with  little  cultivation,  have 
encouraged  unwise  and  wasteful  methods  of  farm- 
ing. These  methods  have  resulted  in  land  almost 
or  quite  depleted  of  its  fertility,  until  there  are 
many  sections  where  the  soil  no  longer  responds  to 
cultivation  with  profitable  crops.  The  problem  of 
restoring  these  lands  to  productive  power  and  of 
preventing  other  land  from  becoming  barren  is  one 
that  scientists  and  farmers  together  have  partially 
solved. 

How  Land  loses  Fertility.  —  (a)  As  different  plants 
take  different  elements  or  different  amounts  of  the 
same  elements  from  the  soil  for  food  (see  page  101), 
a  given  crop  planted  in  the  same  soil  for  years  will 


SOILS  AND    FERTILIZERS  99 

deplete  the  land  of  those  elements,  (b)  The  soil, 
through  lack  of  proper  cultivation  or  drainage,  loses 
its  capacity  for  holding  moisture  and  so  is  unable  to 
bear  crops,  although  rich  in  plant  food  elements,  as 
these  elements  enter  the  plant  only  in  solution,  (c)  Wind 
and  water  bear  away  much  of  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  (d)  The  condition  of  the  soil  may  be  such  that 
the  microscopic  organisms  (see  page  76)  cannot  thrive, 
and  therefore  the  plant  does  not  thrive,  (e)  The  sup- 
ply of  humus  may  be  exhausted,  which  will  result  in  a 
decreased  supply  of  nitrogen  and  mineral  plant  food 
associated  with  the  humus  (see  page  32),  will  render  the 
soil  less  able  to  hold  moisture,  and  will  lessen  the  forma- 
tion of  organic  acids  which  help  to  make  plant"  food 
available. 

Sooner  or  later  one  or  more  of  these  causes  will 
operate  to  render  the  richest  land  barren  if  the  farmer 
does  nothing  to  counteract  them. 

Elements  of  the  Plants.  —  Chemical  analysis  of  the 
tissues  of  many  plants  has  revealed  the  presence  of 
some  fourteen  elements  in  varying  combinations 
Only  two  of  these  are  derived  directly  from  the  air. 
carbon  and  oxygen,  in  the  form  of  CO2,  and  hy- 
drogen, and  these  three  form  about  nineteen  twentieths 
of  the  tissues  of  plants,  the  remaining  one  twen- 
tieth being  composed  of  elements  supplied  by  the 
soil.  Of  these  soil  elements,  only  four  need  our  special 
attention,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  and  cal- 
cium, for  these  are  the  only  elements  which  must 
be  supplied  by  man,  nature's  supply  often  being  in- 
sufficient. 

Note.  —  Recent  investigation  by  Professor  Hart  of  the  Wisconsin 
Experimental  Station  seems  to  indicate  that  sulphur  may  also  be  deficient 


100  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

in  many  soils,  and  that  this  element  should  be  included  in  the  list  of 
limiting  factors  in  crop  production. 

Fertilizers.  —  A  fertile  soil  contains  in  the  requisite 
amount  all  the  elements  not  directly  derived  from  the 
air  that  are  necessary  for  the  nutrition  of  plants  in  a 
form  easily  available  by  them.  Crop-growing,  among 
other  causes,  tends  to  reduce  this  fertility.  The  break- 
ing up  and  decay  of  rock  and  the  deposits  from  the 
air  brought  down  by  rain  and  snow  will  restore  some- 
thing of  this  fertility,  so  that  crops  may  still  be  grown 
upon  the  soil ;  but  if  the  farmer  wishes  the  maximum 
yield  from  his  land,  he  must  supplement  nature's  work 
by  himself,  supplying  in  one  form  or  another,  directly 
or  indirectly,  the  exhausted  elements  to  the  soil,  that 
is,  by  adding  fertilizers. 

Classes  of  Fertilizers  according  to  Elements.  —  When 
a  soil  has  sufficient  moisture,  there  is  generally  little 
or  no  need  of  supplying  any  of  the  elements  of  plant 
tissue  except  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  and 
occasionally  calcium,  for  the  others  will  be  present 
in  the  soil  in  soluble  form  in  sufficient  quantities 
for  the  plant.  But  the  four  named  are  often  lack- 
ing or,  being  present  in  the  soil,  are  not  in  available 
form,  in  which  case  they  must  be  supplied  or  made 
available  if  profitable  crops  are  to  be  grown.  The 
fertilizers  that  supply  the  first  three  are  called  ni- 
trogenous, phosphoric,  potassic,  according  as  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  or  potassium  predominates  in  the  com- 
pound. Calcium  is  found  in  every  part  of  the  plant, 
more  lime  being  found  in  the  leaves  than  in  the 
other  parts.  Its  artificial  application  will  be  discussed 
later. 

Conservation   of    Soil   Fertility.  —  It   is   possible   by 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


101 


careful  tillage,  by  rotation  of  crops,  and  by  utilizing  the 
straw  and  manure  of  the  farm  to  postpone  the  exhaus- 
tion of  the  plant  food  elements  of  the  soil.  If,  how- 
ever, crops  are  sold  year  by  year  from  the  farm,  either 
in  the  form  of  grain,  hay,  or  live  stock,  the  soil  from 
which  these  crops  come  must  become  less  productive. 

What  plant  food  is  removed  from  the  soil  in  crops 
must  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  some  form,  if  the  fertil- 
ity is  to  be  maintained.  It  is  the  province  of  the  farmer 
to  secure  from  the  soil  as  large  a  crop  as  possible,  sell 
it  for  as  high  a  price  as  he  can  get,  and  put  back  into 
the  soil  the  fertility  removed  from  it  at  as  small  an  ex- 
penditure as  possible. 

Fertility  removed  by  Different  Crops.  —  As  will 
be  seen  from  the  table  in  the  Appendix,  different  crops 

800  Lbs,  OF  TOBACCO 


FIG.  37.  —  Showing  the  Pounds  of  Plant  Food  removed  by  800  Pounds  of 
Tobacco. 

remove  different  proportions    of  the  important    plant 
foods  containing  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium. 


102 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


1000    Pounds 
BARN  YARD  MANUFu 


If  800  pounds  of  Virginia  leaf  tobacco  are  raised  and 
removed  from  an  acre  of  land,  the  main  elements  re- 
moved are  as  indicated  in  Figure  37 : 

Nitrogenous  43.7 
Phosphoric  5.0 
Potassic  57.3 

Average  barnyard  manure  contains  to  each  1000 
pounds  5  pounds  of  nitrogenous,  3  pounds  of  phosphoric, 
and  6  pounds  of  potassic  plant  food  as  shown  in 
Figure  38. 

It  is  evident  that  if  the  fertility  of  the  soil  removed  by 
the  800  pounds  of  tobacco  is  to  be  restored  by  the  appli- 
cation of  manure,  there 
must  be  applied  more  than 
8000  pounds  an  acre  to  re- 
plenish the  nitrogenous  food 
or  more  than  9000  pounds 
to  restore  the  potassic  ele- 
ment. In  either  case  there 
would  be  more  of  the  phos- 
phoric supplied  in  the  ma- 
nure than  would  be  required 
by  the  tobacco.  This  would, 
of  course,  do  no  harm,  but 
fertilizers  containing  a  larger 
proportion  of  nitrogen  and 
of  potassium  might  be  ob- 
tained at  a  lower  cost  than 
the  large  quantity  of  manure  required. 

In  many  cases  the  easiest  and  best  way  to  obtain  a 
supply  of  nitrogen  for  crops  is  by  growing  leguminous 
plants,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  peas,  and  beans.  These 


•in- 
•o'- 
er 

•z.  • 

LU. 
ID-. 
O 

a:'. 

h- 


FIG.  38.  —  Showing  the  Number  of 
Pounds  of  Plant  Food  in  1000 
Pounds  of  Barnyard  Manure. 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS  103 

plants,  through  the  action  of  the  bacteria  on  their  roots, 
take  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  make  of  it  a  nitrate 
for  the  use  of  the  plant.  (See  page  113.) 

To  gain  the  nitrogen  and  not  to  remove  from  the 
soil  the  other  necessary  food  substances,  these  crops 
should  be  turned  under  and  not  harvested.  Figure  39 

2TONS  CLOVER 


o 

Q. 
FIG.  39.  —  Showing  Plant  Food  taken  from  Soil  by  Clover. 

shows  that  in  a  clover  crop  of  two  tons  taken  from 
an  acre  of  land  there  is  an  increase  of  nitrogen,  but 
there  is  a  great  decrease  of  phosphorus  and  of  potas- 
sium. 

Note.  —  Under  normal  conditions  of  soil  fertility,  the  clover  plant 
will  obtain  a  part  of  its  nitrogen  from  the  soil  and  a  part  from  the  air. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  part  of  the  clover  plant  removed  in  a 
crop  as  hay  will  contain  just  about  the  amount  of  nitrogen  obtained 
from  the  air,  the  nitrogen  in  the  roots  and  stubble  representing  the 
amount  obtained  from  the  soil.  If  this  estimate  is  correct,  it  is  evident 
that  the  soil  will  neither  gain  nor  lose  this  element  when  the  hay  is 
removed. 


104 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


When  legumes  are  grown  and  the  crops  removed  from 
the  land,  some  means  should  be  taken  to  replace  the 
phosphorus  and  potassium  taken  from  the  soil. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  on  an  acre  in  the  United 
States  is  about  15  bushels,  or  900  pounds,  while  the 
yield  of  oats  is  30  bushels,  or  960  pounds,  an  acre. 


900  Lbs,  WHEAT 


960  Lbs,  OATS 


FIG.  40.  —  Showing  the  Plant  Food  taken  from  Soil  by  Wheat  and  by  Oats. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  very  little  difference 
in  the  decrease  caused  by  these  two  grains.  The  fact 
that  virgin  soil  that  is  well  supplied  with  plant  food  will 
produce  from  30  to  50  bushels  of  wheat  an  acre  and  that 
the  average  yields  in  this  country  are  less  than  half 
the  maximum  yields  shows  the  results  of  constant 
cropping  without  proper  fertilization.  Some  of  the 
European  countries  are  now  producing  from  30  to  50 
bushels  of  wheat  an  acre  by  adding  fertilizers. 

About  30  bushels  of  corn  are  raised  on  an  acre  in  this 
country.  This  crop,  it  will  be  observed,  removes  more 
fertility  than  either  wheat  or  oats.  The  frequent 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


105 


1680  Lbs,  INDIAN  CORN 


cultivation  also  has  a  tendency  to  decrease  considerably 
the  humus  in  the  soil.  To  get  maximum  crops  of  corn 
and  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  liberal  applica- 
tions of  animal  manure  and  of  mineral  fertilizers  should 
be  made. 

Classes  of  Fertilizers  according  to  Source.  —  A  farm 
that  is  well  organized  and  well  managed  has  usually 
in  its  own  products  .nearly 
all  of  the  fertilizers  needed 
to  keep  itself  in  a  productive 
condition.  By  the  occa- 
sional plowing  under  of  cer- 
tain green  crops,  called  green 
manuring,  much  humus  is 
returned  to  the  soil,  while 
the  careful  conservation  and 
proper  use  of  animal  manure 
from  the  barnyard  renders 
unnecessary  so  much  of 
other  fertilizers. 

Farmers  who  do  not  have 
animals  on  the  farm  and 
thus  provide  for  a  plentiful 
supply  of  barnyard  manure,  and  who  do  not  green 
manure  their  land,  must  resort  to  what  are  known 
as  commercial  fertilizers ;  that  is,  compounds  of  ni- 
trogen, phosphorus,  and  potassium  prepared  or  manu- 
factured. These  fertilizers  are  expensive,  especially 
those  containing  nitrogen,  but  some  farmers  use  them 
and  let  the  manure  go  to  waste. 

Green  Manure.  —  Crops  of  buckwheat,  rye,  clover, 
or  cowpeas  are  sometimes  planted  to  be  plowed  under 
with  the  purpose  of  adding  humus  to  the  soil  through 


•LJ  • 

CD-'- 
'.Ov1 
Ct  . 

h- 


FIG.  41.  —  Showing  Plant  Food  taken 
from  Soil  by  Corn. 


io6  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

the  decay  of  the  plants ;  the  plowing  under  is  done  in 
the  spring  before  the  plants  have  attained  sufficient 
growth  to  exhaust  the  moisture  of  the  soil.  It  is  not 
to  be  supposed  that  a  farmer  would  sacrifice  in  this 
way  a  crop  that  is  worth  harvesting,  except  in  extreme 
cases.  If  stock  is  kept  on  the  farm,  a  good  crop  may 
be  utilized  for  fodder  and  the  manure  will  serve  to 
furnish  humus  and  elements  of  fertility.  Farmers 
who  do  not  keep  stock  will  find  themselves  forced  to 
use  green  manure  or  apply  commercial  fertilizers  to 
keep  their  land  from  getting  sterile. 

Animal  Manure.  —  Animal  manure  contains  not 
alone  the  indigestible  portions  of  the  food  eaten  by  the 
stock,  but  also  worn-out  animal  tissues.  It  contains 
nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  Average  barn- 
yard manure  has  10  pounds  of  nitrogen,  6  pounds  of 
phosphorus,  and  12  pounds  of  potassium  to  a  ton,  these 
three  plant  elements  being  the  ones  most  likely  to  be 
needed  in  soil  that  has  been  cropped  often.  The  quality 
of  animal  manure  depends  upon  the  food  eaten  by  the 
animals,  and  their  age  and  condition.  If  fed  on  cotton- 
seed meal,  for  instance,  their  manure  will  contain  from 
75  per  cent  to  90  per  cent  of  the  fertilizing  value  of 
the  meal  originally  fed,  but  considering  all  the  foods 
eaten  by  live  stock  about  one  half  of  the  fertilizing 
elements  eaten  are  returned  in  the  manure. 

Amount  of  Manure  produced  by  Animals.  —  From 
the  study  of  a  table  computed  from  the  amount  of 
manure  produced  annually  by  the  different  farm  ani- 
mals and  the  relative  richness  of  the  same  in  nitrogen, 
phosphorus,  and  potassium,  we  learn  that  on  the  basis 
of  looo  pounds  of  live  weight,  the  horse  produces 
about  12  tons  of  manure  (including  bedding),  which 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS  107 

contains  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  three  elements  to 
be  worth  about  $40  at  the  average  price  of  the  same 
amount  of  these  elements  in  commercial  fertilizers : 
the  cow,  14  tons,  worth  $39;  the  sheep,  9  tons,  worth 
$45;  the  calf,  14  tons,  worth  $40;  the  pig,  18  tons, 
worth  $80;  fowls,  4  tons,  worth  $68.  Sheep  manure 
is  more  valuable  because  it  is  drier. 

Young  animals  furnish  manure  less  rich  in  nutriment 
than  more  mature  ones.  Fowls  yield  the  richest  ma- 
nure on  the  farm,  but  as  said  before,  the  quality  of  all 
manure  depends  largely  upon  the  quality  of  the  food. 

Note.  —  It  has  been  computed  that  about  2  tons  an  acre  each 
year  is  enough  manure  for  ordinary  crops.  One  cow  or  horse  or  its 
equivalent  for  each  5^  acres  of  land  will  furnish  the  required  amount 
of  manure.1 

Uses.  — -  Animal  manure  is  rich  in  plant  food,  es- 
pecially the  nitrogenous  compounds,  hence  it  enriches 
the  soil  by  the  addition  of  nitrogen  as  well  as  phos- 
phorus and  potassium.  But  it  does  even  more.  It 
favors  the  development  of  nitrate-forming  bacteria 
in  the  soil,  and  also  changes  the  potash,  lime,  and 
phosphorus  of  the  soil  into  more  soluble  forms. 

Note.  —  By  the  decay  of  organic  matter  organic  acids  are  formed. 
These  acids  — -  carbonic,  humic,  and  nitric  —  act  upon  insoluble  com- 
pounds of  potassium  and  phosphorus  and  make  them  soluble.  Thus 
animal  manure  and  green  manure  by  their  decay  render  plant  food 
available. 

As  liquid  manure  contains  the  plant  food  in  available 
form  for  the  plant  to  use,  it  is  especially  valuable  as 
a  fertilizer.  Manure,  through  its  adding  humus  to  the 
soil,  also  renders  the  soil  more  capable  of  holding 
moisture. 

1  Roberts,  Fertility  of  the  Land. 


io8  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

Care  of  Manure.  --The  great  sources  of  loss  in  the 
value  of  manure  are:  (i)  leaching,  that  is,  percola- 
tion of  water  through  it,  (2)  running  off  of  the  liquid 
portion,  and  (3)  fermentation,  by  which  nitrogen  es- 
capes as  ammonia  or  in  other  gaseous  nitrogen  com- 
pounds. If  loss  is  to  be  prevented,  the  causes  of  loss 
must  be  removed.  If  manure  could  be  put  on  the  land 
as  soon  as  made,  all  its  fertility  could  be  utilized  and  the 
labor  expense  of  handling  it  twice  would  be  saved;  but 
as  this  is  not  always  practicable,  the  next  best  thing  is  to 
save  as  much  of  its  richness  as  possible.  Manure  left 
where  it  will  get  the  drippings  from  the  eaves,  or  open  to 
rain  and  snow,  will  lose  half  its  value  through  leaching. 
This  may  be  prevented  by  covering  the  manure. 
Many  farmers  now  build  covered  barnyards,  so  that  the 
manure  is  not  leached  by  the  falling  rain  and  snow  nor 
dried  so  quickly  by  the  sun  and  wind.  The  stock  pack 
the  manure,  and  this  helps  to  keep  it  moist  and  prevents 
fermentation.  If  straw  is  used  for  bedding,  it  will 
help  to  absorb  the  moisture,  while  it  in  itself  will,  by 
its  decay,  furnish  plant  food. 

If  a  cement  floor  is  used,  still  further  loss  is  prevented. 
The  addition  of  acid  phosphate  or  gypsum  to  the  ma- 
nure pile  will  retard  the  fermentation  and  thus  help  to 
retain  the  nitrogen.  (See  pages  55,  117.) 

Note.  —  Shavings  or  sawdust  are  often  used  as  bedding,  and  when 
straw  cannot  be  obtained  they  are  necessary  substitutes.  Shavings 
contain  very  little  of  the  fertilizing  elements,  and  their  decay,  when 
mixed  with  the  manure,  is  very  slow.  On  this  account  straw  is  pre- 
ferred for  bedding. 

Application  of  Manure.  — Many  farmers  apply  ma- 
nure in  the  late  summer  or  fall  and  harrow  it  in.  If 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS  109 

left  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  soil  does  not  re- 
ceive all  its  fertilizing  value,  as  part  may  wash  away. 
As  fresh  manure  injures  some  crops,  there  is  danger  in 
applying  it  in  the  spring  unless  thoroughly  cured,  or 
rotted.  Plants,  if  supplied  with  plant  food  in  too  great 
abundance,  are  likely  to  overeat  somewhat  as  animals 
do,  so  it  is  better  to  apply  the  manure  frequently  in 
small  quantities  on  the  land  with  comparatively  long 
periods  between  applications. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  when  rock  phosphate 
or  acid  phosphate  and  some  fertilizer  containing  potas- 
sium are  applied  with  the  manure.  Wood  ashes  or  sul- 
phate of  potassium  will  furnish  potassium.1 

Economy  of  Manure. --The  cash  value  of  animal 
manure  is  usually  estimated  by  ascertaining  what  the 
same  fertilizing  value  in  commercial  fertilizers  would 
cost.  The  price  of  nitrogen  may  be  placed  at  17  cents 
a  pound ;  the  other  two  elements  are  each  worth  about 
6  cents  a  pound.  A  fertilizer  containing  10  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  6  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  12  pounds  of 
potash,  which  is  the  proportion  of  these  elements  in  a 
ton  of  manure,  would  cost  $2.78,  which  means  that  the 

1  Professor  Chilcott  has  this  to  say  of  the  application  of  manure  : 
"  The  farmer  should  fully  understand  that  while  the  application  of  barn- 
yard manure  to  the  soil  is  certain  to  have  a  beneficial  effect  by  adding  to 
the  store  of  plant  food,  its  effect  may  not  be  apparent  in  the  results  of  the 
first  crop  after  application  ;  and  that  the  immediate  physical  effects  upon 
the  soil  may  be  either  beneficial  or  detrimental,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil,  the  kind  of  manure,  the  time  and  method  of  applica- 
tion, the  nature  of  the  crop  and  the  character  of  the  season  as  to  moisture 
and  temperature. 

"The  soil  of  the  farm  should  be  considered  a  bank  in  which  the  surplus 
resources  of  the  farm,  in  the  form  of  plant  food,  should  be  deposited  with 
the  understanding  that  the  surplus  cannot  be  withdrawn  at  once,  but  it  is 
to  remain  until  such  time  as  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  its  utilization." 


no  SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 

farmer  has  in  each  ton  of  the  waste  product  from  his 
stock  $2.78  in  fertilizing  value  to  restore  his  land,  with 
no  expense  except  the  labor  of  caring  for  it  and  applying 
it.  This  last  expense  would  have  to  be  borne  in  hauling 
it  away  if  not  used,  so  this  need  not  enter  into  the  cal- 
culation. Taking  into  consideration  these  figures,  it 
seems  scarcely  credible  that  farmers  will  give  away  or 
sell  their  manure  to  more  thrifty  neighbors  or  so  neglect 
to  protect  it  that  it  loses  a  large  percentage  of  its  nutri- 
tive soil  value.  Yet  many  farmers  still  continue  this 
wasteful,  improvident  practice,  and  then  purchase  com- 
mercial fertilizers  when  their  land  has  become  infertile. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. -- The  materials  for  making 
these  fertilizers  are  the  by-products  of  the  slaughter 
and  meat-packing  houses,  like  bone  meal,  dried  blood, 
or  tankage  (waste  material) ;  natural  products  of  the 
earth  that  are  mined,  like  Chile  saltpeter  (sodium  ni- 
trate), phosphate  rock,  kainit  (a  mineral  composed  of 
magnesium  sulphate,  potassium  sulphate,  and  magnesium 
chloride  found  in  Germany) ;  by-products  of  gas  and 
coke  manufacture  (ammonia  sulphate) ;  or  vegetable 
products,  like  wood  ashes  and  tobacco  stems. 

The  value  of  the  commercial  fertilizers  has  nothing 
to  do  with  their  origin,  but  depends  entirely  upon  the 
quantity  and  the  form  in  which  the  plant  food  exists 
in  them,  whether  in  soluble  form  and  directly  available 
to  the  plant  or  in  a  form  which  must  first  be  acted 
upon  by  other  agencies  before  being  used  by  the  plant. 
(See  page  107.) 

Amounts  to  Use.  —  Commercial  fertilizers  are  used 
for  the  same  purpose  as  manures  to  restore  or  maintain 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Most  authorities  are  agreed 
that  each  acre  of  land,  in  order  to  show  the  maximum 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


in 


productive  results,  will  require  at  least  10  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  15  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  20  pounds  of 
potash  each  year,  but  the  amount  of  any  fertilizer  re- 
quired can  never  be  stated  in  exact  figures,  for  different 
soils  and  different  plants  need  varying  amounts,  so 
that  any  figures  are  misleading,  experience  being  the 
only  safe  guide  in  determining  the  quantity  to  be  used. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  know  what  available  amount 
of  the  needed  elements  any  given  fertilizer  contains,  in 
order  to  estimate  how  much  of  it  to  use. 

The  following  table  is  useful  for  reference  as  it  gives 
the  approximate  percentage  of  food  elements  in  the 
most  common  commercial  fertilizers  : 


NITROGEN 

SOLUBLE 
PHOSPHORUS 

INSOLUBLE 
PHOSPHORUS 

POTASH 

Nitrogenous 

% 

% 

% 

'    % 

Chile  saltpeter 

I5I-I6 

Ammonium  sulphate 

I9-20l 

Dried  blood    .... 

12—14 

Castor  pomace1  . 

5-6 

Phosphoric 

Bone  black     .... 

17 

1-2 

17-18 

Ground  bone 

*i-4* 

5-8 

15-17 

3°-3S 

Thomas  slag 

9-18 

Potassic 

Muriate  of  potash 

5° 

Sulphate  of  potash     . 

48-52 

Kainit  

i  i  —  i  ii- 

1  J     *  J2 

Wood  ashes    .... 

1-2 

3-5 

Tobacco  stems     . 

3-5 

5-8 

1  Refuse  from  extracting  oils  from  castor  bean. 


112 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS 


It  will  be  readily  seen  that  in  order  to  obtain  all 
three  elements  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  a  fertilizing 
mixture.  For  instance,  to  obtain  the  10  pounds  of 
nitrogen  needed  for  one  acre,  about  65  pounds  of  Chile 
saltpeter  will  be  required;  for  15  pounds  of  soluble 
phosphoric  acid,  it  will  take  100  pounds  of  bone  black, 
and  160  pounds  of  kainit  or  40  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash  to  furnish  the  potash  needed. 

Note.  —  In  mixing  fertilizers  care  should  be  taken  that  combinations 
are  not  made  that  will  release  any  food  element  that  will  be  lost  in  the 
air  or  that  will  lock  up  in  chemical  combinations  food  elements  so  that 
they  are  not  available.  Figure  42  will  aid  in  avoiding  error. 


Superphosphate 


Thomas  Phosphate 


Potash  Salts 


Nitrate  of  Soda 
FlG.  42. 

Substances  connected  by  thick  line  must  not  be  mixed  together.  Substances  connected 
by  double  line  must  be  mixed  only  immediately  before  use.  Substances  connected  by  single 
thin  line  may  be  mixed  together  at  any  time.  After  Geekens. 

Application. -- The  manner  of  applying  commercial 
fertilizers  depends  upon  their  form,  whether  soluble 
or  insoluble.  If  the  former,  they  may  simply  be  scat- 
tered over  the  surface  of  the  land,  for  the  rains  will 
cause  them  to  mix  with  the  soil.  If  insoluble,  they 
should  be  mixed  with  sand  or  ashes,  spread  as  evenly 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS  113 

as  possible  over  the  surface,  then  plowed  or  harrowed 
in,  for  if  they  are  not  thoroughly  mixed  with  soil,  they 
will  do  little  good. 

If  immediate  results  are  desired  in  the  form  of  a 
large  yield,  soluble  fertilizers  must  be  applied  in  the 
spring,  but  if  the  soil  is  to  be  gradually  enriched  by 
their  use  for  a  number  of  years,  a  slow,  insoluble  fer- 
tilizer should  be  put  on  in  the  fall. 

Nitrogen.  —  Much  has  already  been  said  about  the 
need  of  nitrogen.  The  atmosphere  is  largely  com- 
posed of  this  element,  about  80  per  cent,  and  yet 
plants  surrounded  with  air  may  starve  for  lack  of  ni- 
trogen. The  reason  is  that  they  are  so  constituted 
as  to  be  unable  to  take  in  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air. 
The  air  must  first  enter  the  soil,  and  there  give  up 
its  nitrogen  to  make  soluble  nitrates  —  nitrogen  com- 
pounds —  before  the  plant  can  take  it  in  and  use  it. 
A  small  amount  of  nitrates  —  nitric  acid  and  ammonia 
—  falls  with  rain  and  snow  and  enters  the  soil,  but  as 
this  is  variable  and  insufficient  for  plant  needs,  we  must 
consider  what  the  conditions  are  under  which  soluble 
nitrates  are  formed  in  the  soil,  in  order  to  understand 
how  plants  get  their  needed  food. 

Legumes.  —  It  has  remained  for  modern  science  to 
explain  a  fact  well  known  in  ancient  times,  that  other 
crops  yield  more  abundantly  when  the  land  has  been 
sown  to  clover,  peas,  or  beans  the  preceding  year. 
We  now  know  why  this  is  so.  These  plants  and  their 
kind,  known  as  legumes,  or  pod  plants,  have  little 
swellings,  or  tubercles,  on  their  roots,  caused  by  cer- 
tain small  organisms,  called  bacteria.  Through  the 
agency  of  these  microscopic  plants  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  air  and  that  found  in  organic  matter  in  the 

M.  &  H.  AG.  —  8 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 


soil  are  combined  with  other  elements  in  the  soil  to 
form  nitric  acid  (HNOs).  This  acid  combines  with 

certain  substances,  such  as 
lime,  soda,  iron,  and  the  like, 
to  form  soluble  nitrates. 
They  are  readily  available 
to  the  plant. 

This  process  is  called  ni- 
trification. The  roots  of  leg- 
umes furnish  homes  for  the 
nitrogen-fixing  bacteria, 
which  abound  in  nearly 
every  soil.  When  a  crop  of 
these  plants  is  plowed  under 
and  decays,  great  richness 
is  added  to  the  soil.  Ni- 
trification, or  fixation  of  free 
nitrogen,  as  some  call  it, 
goes  on  most  rapidly  when 
the  soil  is  moist  and  well 

FIG.  43. — Tubercles  on  Clover  Roots.  j     i  i  j 

warmed,  because  heat  and 

moisture  favor  the  growth  of  bacteria.  This  explains, 
in  part,  why  properly  drained,  thoroughly  tilled  land 
produces  better  crops. 

It  is  thus  seen  how  soil  poor  in  nitrogen  may,  by  the 
action  of  bacteria  on  legumes,  be  fertilized  from  the 
inexhaustible  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  air.  The  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  made  a  thorough  study 
of  this  subject,  and  has  succeeded  in  working  out  the 
complete  life  history  and  habits  of  the  bacteria  in  the 
root  tubercles. 

They  have  also  discovered  a  cheap  and  thoroughly 
effective  way  of  distributing  and  applying  these  or- 


SOILS  AND   FERTILIZERS  115 

ganisms.  At  the  cost  of  a  few  cents  a  bushel  the  seeds 
of  peas,  beans,  clover,  alfalfa,  or  any  other  legumes 
may  be  inoculated  with  these  bacteria,  thus  making 
it  possible  to  secure  good  crops  on  soils  poorly  supplied 
with  nitrogen,  and  at  the  same  time  leave  a  large 
amount  of  the  element  fixed  in  the  soil  available  to 
wheat,  corn,  potatoes,  or  any  other  crop  that  may 
follow  the  legumes.  The  bacteria  are  helped  to  live 
and  multiply  by  their  host  plant,  the  host  in  turn 
is  supplied  with  nitrogenous  food  by  these  bacteria, 
and  the  host,  upon  dying,  leaves  its  decaying  roots, 
leaves,  and  stems  to  supply  stored-up  nitrogen  to 
succeeding  crops  or  to  neighboring  plants  which  may 
outlive  the  legume  and  feed  upon  its  disorganized 
parts.1 

Experiments  are  being  conducted  at  different  ex- 
periment stations  to  ascertain  whether  nitrogen  fixa- 
tion can  be  secured  without  legumes,  but  while  there 
has  been  a  degree  of  success  attained,  the  work  is  yet 
in  the  experimental  stage. 

Note.  —  If  legumes  are  grown  in  soil  well  supplied  with  compounds 
of  nitrogen,  as  nitrates,  tubercles  will  not  grow  on  the  roots.  Bacteria 
will  fix  nitrogen  from  the  air  when  the  plant  needs  it  for  its  growth. 
When  the  soil  is  poorly  supplied  with  compounds  of  nitrogen,  tubercles 
on  the  roots  of  the  legumes  grow  in  large  numbers  and  often  in  large 
clusters. 

Denitrification.  —  While  the  work  of  certain  bacteria 
through  nitrification  is  beneficent  to  the  plant  world, 
there  are  others  of  these  microscopic  plants  that  ac- 
complish the  opposite  result,  in  that  they  act  upon 
the  nitrates,  breaking  up  these  compounds  and  restor- 

1  See  Farmers'  Bulletin,  315;  Progress  in  Legume  Inoculation. 


Ii6  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

ing  free  nitrogen  to  the  air,  a  process  called  denitrifica- 
tion.  Through  this  process  animal  manure,  left  exposed 
to  the  weather  and  not  packed  down,  loses  much  of  its 
nitrogen  and  therefore  its  fertilizing  value.  Soil  often 
loses  soluble  nitrates  through  the  operation  of  this  cause 
and  thus  becomes  less  able  to  produce  good  crops. 
Cover  crops,  that  is,  crops  left  unharvested  so  that 
they  may  protect  the  surface  of  the  ground,  will  retard 
denitrification. 

Acidity  of  Soil.  —  Farmers  have  long  been  familiar 
with  what  they  call  a  sour  soil.  A  poorly  drained 
soil  will  easily  become  acid,  but  it  is  equally  true 
that  a  well-drained  one  may  also  reveal  the  same 
condition.  Sometimes  this  acidity  is  due  to  lack 
of  ventilation  in  the  soil,  sometimes  to  the  pres- 
ence of  too  many  trees  shading  the  ground,  some- 
times to  the  excessive  use  of  fertilizers,  and  sometimes 
to  the  leaching  of'  the  soil.  It  is  also  true  that  some 
plants  through  the  action  of  their  root  tips  render  the 
soil  acid,  and  that  decay  of  organic  matter  will  produce 
the  same  result. 

Note.  —  Investigations  by  Professor  Whitson  of  the  Wisconsin  Ex- 
periment Station  have  shown  that  long-continued  cropping  on  upland 
clay  soils  renders  them  acid,  and  that  these  acid  soils  respond  readily  to 
an  application  of  rock  phosphate. 

Suggestive  Experiment.  —  Collect  from  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface  small  quantities  of  soil  from  different  places  where  there  might 
be  reason  to  think  that  acid  soils  might  be  found.  After  thoroughly 
moistening  the  soil,  place  a  small  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper  in  each 
sample,  cover  the  paper  completely  with  the  soil  and  leave  it  for  five 
minutes.  If,  on  examination,  the  paper  has  become  distinctly  red,  you 
may  know  that  the  soil  is  sour,  for  an  acid  always  has  this  effect  on 
litmus.  (See  page  23.) 


SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS  117 

Legumes  and  some  other  plants  grown  in  acid  soil 
will  not  thrive  well ;  but  if  a  little  slacked  quicklime  is 
added  to  the  soil,  or  preferably,  larger  quantities  of 
ground  limestone,  beneficial  results  soon  follow,  for 
lime  neutralizes  the  acid.  Lime  does  more  for  vegeta- 
tion than  this.  It  helps  greatly  in  rendering  other 
plant  foods  available  by  hastening  the  decay  of  organic 
matter  and  rendering  insoluble  phosphoric  and  potassic 
compounds  soluble. 

Gypsum,  a  form  of  lime,  fixes  ammonia,  hence  it  is 
often  sprinkled  on  manure  piles  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  this  substance.  (See  page  55.) 


CHAPTER  III 
AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Parts  of  the  Plant.  —  In  general,  the  plant  has  four 
essential  parts ;  namely,  the  root,  which  generally  grows 
in  the  soil,  the  stem,  which  in  most  instances  grows 


' 


Beet  Carrot  Parsnip 

FIG.  44.  —  Roots  used  for  Food. 


Mangel -wurzci 


above  the  ground,  the  leaves,  which  grow  on  the  stem 
or    branches   of   it,    and   the  flower  or  fruit  producer, 

118 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


119 


which  also  grows  on  the  stem  or  its  branches.  The 
life  of  the  plant  culminates  in  the  seed,  which  it  is  the 
whole  office  of  the  plant  to  produce,  for  the  seed,  con- 
taining as  it  does  the  germ  of  another  plant,  is  an  im- 
portant means  of  perpetuating  the  species. 


Celery  Kohl-rabi  Potato 

FIG.  45.  —  Stems  used  for  Food. 


Sugar  cane 


Food  Products  from  Plants.  —  Food  products  are 
obtained  from  all  parts  of  the  plant.  The  root  may  be 
enlarged  by  storage  of  food,  as  in  the  beet,  carrot,  sweet 
potato,  and  turnip. 


I2O 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


The  stem  may  serve  as  food  for  stock  either  in  its 
green  state  as  hay,  or  dried  state  as  straw.     For  human 


Cabbage  Onions  Lettuce 

FIG.  46.  — •  Leaves  used  for  Food. 

food   we   have    the    potato    (an    underground    stem), 
sugar  cane,  celery,  and  asparagus,  as  illustrations. 
Leaves  become  thickened  and  furnish  food,  as  seen 


Wheat  Nuts  Pear  Melon 

FIG.  47.  —  Products  of  the  Flower  used  for  Food. 

in  the  cabbage  and  the  onion.     With  the  stem  they  make 
hay  for  live  stock,  as  in  clover  and  alfalfa. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


121 


Our  most  important  food  supply  comes  from  the 
flower,  or  rather  the  seed  which  the  flower  produces. 
Grains,  fruits,  nuts,  and  melons  are  well-known  ex- 
amples. 

The  Root.  — The  root  of  the  plant  in  most  instances 
extends  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  fixing  the 
position  of  the  plant  and  taking  from  the 
soil  water  containing  the  dissolved  mineral 
food  that  the  plant  needs.  As  a  rule,  the 
root  springs  from  the  stem,  and  not  the 
stem  from  the  root. 

Primary  Roots. — The  seed,  when  put 
under  the  right  conditions  of  moisture,  air, 
and  temperature,  begins  to  sprout,  or  ger- 
minate. It  sends  downward  a  primary  root. 
This  may  later  branch  and  subdivide  until 
it  is  entirely  lost  in  its  divisions,  or  it  may 
continue  in  one  main  root,  having  small 
side  branches  only,  as  in  the  carrot  and 
radish.  The  branches  from  the  primary 
roots  are  called  secondary  roots. 

Adventitious  Roots.  —  Under  favorable 
conditions  any  part  of  the  stem  may  produce  roots. 
These  usually  come  from  parts  where  leaves  or  branches 
would  naturally  spring,  but  sometimes  they  grow  from 
other  parts  of  the  stem.  In  either  case  they  are  called 
adventitious  roots.  Because  of  this  tendency  in  stems 
to  send  off  roots  from  different  parts,  some  plants  may 
be  multiplied  by  cuttings ;  that  is,  by  cutting  a  slip 
of  the  stem  and  planting  it  in  moist  soil,  in  sand,  or  in 
water. 

Classes  of  Roots. — When  a  root  of  a  plant  divides 
and  subdivides  into  numerous  small,  threadlike  forms, 


FIG.  48.— 
Plantlet  of 
Indian  Corn, 
showing  Pri- 
mary Root. 


122 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


or  rootlets,  it  is  called  a  fibrous  root.     Nearly  all  grains 

and  grasses  have  fibrous  roots. 

Some  roots  are  storehouses  of 
food  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
plant  itself  and  the  production  of 
seed  the  following  year.  They 
consist  of  a  large  main  root  with 
small  side  branches.  Such  roots 
are  called  fleshy  roots,  or  taproots. 
The  carrot  and  turnip  are  good 
examples.  (See  Figure  44.) 

Note.  —  Parasitic  roots.  Another  class 
of  roots,  based  on  mode  of  feeding  rather 
than  on*  form,  is  called  parasitic  roots. 
These  roots  are  found  on  such  plants  as 
mistletoe  and  the  common  dodders,  which 
grow  on  flax,  clover,  alfalfa,  and  other 
plants.  These  are 
peculiar  roots 
which  penetrate 

the  tissues  of  the  plants  upon  which  they  live, 

taking  their  nourishment  from  these  plants. 

Root  Hairs.  -  -  Figure  50  shows 
some  very  young  radish  plants.  No- 
tice that  each  root  is  clothed  with  a 
downy  fringe  that  looks  like  the  finest 
silk.  These  delicate,  hairlike  struc- 
tures are  called  root  hairs.  The  pur- 
pose they  serve  is  to  absorb  the  soil 
water  with  the  food  materials  it  con- 
tains. The  root  hairs  greatly  in- 
crease the  absorbing  surface  of  the  plant  below  ground. 
Each  root  hair  consists  of  a  single  elongated  cell, 


FIG.  49.  —  Roots  of  an  Oat 
Plant,  showing  Fibrous 
Root. 


FIG.  50.  —  Young  Rad- 
ish Plants. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  123 

filled  with  a  mucilage-like  substance  called  protoplasm, 
and  a  thinner,  more  watery  substance  called  cell  sap. 
As  the  end  of  the  root  pushes  through  the  soil  by  growth, 
new  root  hairs  are  formed  in  front  of  the  older  ones, 
while  those  farthest  back  as  rapidly  die  off,  so  that  at 
any  given  time  only  a  short  portion  of  a  rootlet  bears 
hairs.  A  root  hair  never  develops  into  a  rootlet. 

It  is  usually  difficult  to  see  the  root  hairs  of  plants 
growing  in  the  ground,  but  with  the  help  of  a  magnify- 
ing glass  they  may  be  discovered  if  the  particles  of  soil 
about  the  younger  roots  are  carefully  removed. 

Suggestive  Experiment.  —  Place  flax,  clover,  or  timothy  seed 
on  moist  blotting  paper.  Keep  the  blotting  paper  between  two  plates  to 
prevent  evaporation.  Notice  the  velvety  covering  to  the  roots.  These 
are  the  root  hairs  above  described. 

Uses  of  Root  Hairs.  —  Root  hairs  can  take  up  water 
freely,  even  from  soil  that  does  not  appear  very  wet, 
because  each  particle  of  soil,  against  which  the  hairs 
lie  very  close,  is  surrounded  by  a  thin  layer,  or  film,  of 
water.  Another  thing  of  interest  concerning  root 
hairs  is  that  they  are  able,  by  means  of  an  acid  which 
exudes  from  their  tips,  to  aid  in  dissolving  the  mineral 
matters  in  the  soil  which  the  plant  needs  for  food. 

As  the  root  hairs,  then,  aid  in  the  work  of  solution 
and  do  nearly  all  the  work  of  absorption  of  the  food  the 
plant  obtains  from  the  soil,  it  follows  that  the  amount  of 
nourishment  a  given  plant  can  receive  from  the  ground 
depends  upon  the  number  of  the  root  tips,  the  only  part 
of  the  root  which  bears  root  hairs. 

Suggestive  Experiment.  —  On  a  small  piece  of  polished 
marble  place  some  fine  seed  and  keep  the  surface  of  the  marble  moist 
under  a  cloth  or  blotting  paper  so  that  the  seeds  may  germinate.  As 


124  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

the  roots  spread  over  the  surface,  slight  grooves  will  be  etched  through 
the  polished  surface  of  the  marble.  This  is  done  by  the  acid  that  the 
root  hairs  give  out. 


FIG.  51. — Marble  corroded  by  Bean  Roots  (Minnesota  Experiment  Station). 


Osmosis. --To  understand  just  how  the  root  hairs 
absorb  moisture  and  plant  food  held  in  solution,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  examine  more  closely  the  structure 
of  the  hairs.  As  stated  above,  each  root  hair  is  a 
cell  filled  with  protoplasm  and  cell  sap.  The  former 
usually  lines  the  inner  surface  of  the  cell  wall  and  has 
one  portion  more  dense,  called  the  nucleus.  The  nucleus 
is  supposed  to  be  the  center  of  the  life  of  the  cell,  but 
its  use  is  really  little  understood. 

The  cell  wall  has  no  pores,  or  openings,  that  can  be 
seen  with  the  highest  power  microscope  made,  yet 
water  can  pass  through  the  wall  with  ease.  It  has 
been  found  that  some  plants  having  a  large  root  sur- 
face have  absorbed  many  times  their  own  weight  of 
water  in  twenty-four  hours  through  the  thin  walls 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


125 


of  the  root  hairs.     This  process  of  absorption  is  called 
osmosis. 

Suggestive  Experiment.  —  Dissolve  in  water  all  the  sugar 
that  the  water  will  hold  ;  that  is,  make  a  saturated  solution  of  sugar  and 
water.  Invert  a  small  glass  funnel  or  a  thistle  tube  over  the  larger  end 
of  which  a  bladder  or  other  animal  membrane  has  been  tightly  tied,  and 
pour  in  some  of  the  sugar  solution.  Lower 
the  funnel  or  tube  into  a  glass  of  water 
until  the  water  in  the  glass  and  the  solution 
in  the  funnel  are  at  the  same  height.  Let 
this  stand  for  a  few  hours.  It  will  then 
,  be  observed  that  the  solution  has  increased 
in  volume,  that  is,  has  risen  in  the  tube. 
The  water  in  the  glass  must  have  passed 
through  the  membrane  and  diluted  the 
sugar  solution.  This  passage  has  taken 
place  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there 
are  no  pores  in  the  membrane  which  the 
highest  power  microscope  can  reveal. 
This  passage  of  a  liquid  through  an  animal 
or  vegetable  membrane  is  called  osmosis. 

General  Laws  of  Osmosis.  — 

First  Law.  Two  liquids  separated 
by  a  membrane  will  mix,  and 
the  more  rapid  flow  will  be 
toward  the  liquid  having  the  more 
dense  solution.  That  is,  if  water 
containing  solids  in  solution  is 
separated  from  pure  water  by  a 
membrane,  the  greater  flow  will  be  through  the  mem- 
brane from  the  pure  water  into  the  solution. 

Second    Law.     Substances    that    crystallize    readily 
and  are  easily  dissolved,  such  as  salt  and  sugar,  pass 


FIG.  52.  —  Experiment  'llus- 
trating  Osmosis. 


126  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

through  membranes  easily,  while  mucilaginous,  or  jelly- 
like,  substances  pass  through  membranes  slowly  or  do 
not  pass  through  at  all. 

The  passage  of  water  into  root  hairs,  and  the  retention 
of  the  protoplasm  inside  of  the  root  hair,  well  illustrate 
both  of  these  laws.  The  root  hair  is  surrounded  by 
soil  water  that  is  not  so  dense  as  the  cell  sap,  which 
is  somewhat  sugary.  Hence  the  soil  water  passes 
through  the  wall  of  the  hair  into  the  cell,  here  mixing 
with  cell  sap,  thus  making  it  less  dense  than  before. 
This  root  hair,  or  cell,  touches  another  cell.  The  cell 
sap  in  the  second  cell,  being  as  yet  undiluted,  is  more 
dense  than  that  in  the  first,  therefore  some  of  the  cell 
sap  of  this  first  will  pass  through  the  wall  of  the  second 
and  dilute  the  second.  Thus  the  diluted  cell  sap  is 
passed  on  from  cell  to  cell  till  it  reaches  the  small 
tubes,  or  ducts,  in  the  root  that  carry  it  into  the  stem. 
By  the  operation  of  the  second  law,  the  protoplasm, 
or  life  element  of  the  cell,  remains  in  the  cell. 

Root  Pressure. --This  absorptive  power  of  the 
root  hairs  causes  what  is  called  root  pressure.  This 
is  the  force  which  sends  the  upward  current  of  water 
through  the  plant.  Hales,  the  English  physicist, 
found  the  root  pressure  of  a  grape  vine  to  be  equal  to 
the  weight  of  a  column  of  mercury  thirty-two  and  one 
half  inches  high.  It  is  probably  this  force  which 
causes  the  sap  to  flow  freely  from  broken  stems  and 
from  tapped  maple  trees  in  spring.  Within  certain 
limits  it  is  affected  by  the  temperature  of  the  soil, 
lessening  as  the  temperature  falls.  During  cool  nights, 
when  evaporation  from  the  leaves  of  plants  is  not  great, 
the  root  pressure  may  be  great  enough  to  force  water 
from  the  tips  of  the  leaves.  The  drops  of  water  that 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


127 


sparkle  on  the  foliage  of  plants  in  the  sunlight  of  sum- 
mer mornings,  often  mistaken  for  dew,  are  usually 
caused  by  root  pressure. 

Systems   of   Rootage.  -  -  The   roots   of    some   plants, 
grasses,  and  grains,  for  example,  grow  in  a  fibrous  mat 


\ 

Corn 
FIG.  53.  —  Systems  of  Rootage. 

near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Corn  sends  its  roots 
out  laterally  from  the  plant,  and  then  they  turn  down- 
ward to  a  considerable  depth.  Clover  has  a  taproot 
growing  downward,  with  many  branches  springing  off 
in  all  directions. 

Plants  that  send  their  roots  deep  into  the  soil  are 
known  as  deep  feeders,  while  those  whose  roots  lie  near 
the  surface  are  called  shallow  feeders.  In  general,  the 
extreme  depth  reached  by  roots  is  less  than  their 
greatest  horizontal  extent.  The  depth  to  which 
the  root  grows  probably  depends  largely  upon  the 


128  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

nature  of  the  subsoil  and  the  depth  of  free  ground 
water,  but  in  most  annual  farm  and  garden  crops 
the  roots  may  be  found  in  the  part  of  the  soil  turned 
by  the  plow;  that  is,  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  depth. 
Plants  grown  in  poor  soil  will  have  relatively  a  much 
more  extended  root  system  than  those  grown  in  fertile 
soil.  In  a  dry  season  a  plant  will  extend  its  roots  much 
farther  in  its  search  for  moisture  than  in  a  wet  season. 

Effect  of  Trees  on  Crops.  — Trees,  as  we  can  readily 
see,  must  have  a  wide  extension  of  root  surface  in  order 
to  hold  their  position  and  absorb  sufficient  soil  water. 
As  a  consequence,  their  nearness  to  a  crop  cannot 
fail  to  affect  the  growth  of  that  crop  except  in  a  very 
wet  season,  for  they  absorb  from  the  soil  an  enormous 
amount  of  water  and  this  deprives  the  plants  of  what 
they  must  have  in  order  to  grow;  furthermore,  their 
foliage  keeps  the  much-needed  sunlight  from  the 
maturing  grain. 

How  Roots  Lengthen.  —  Since  roots  are  buried  in 
the  soil  and  the  soil  is  too  heavy  and  dense  to  be  moved 
by  them  in  large  quantities,  they  cannot  grow  through- 
out their  entire  length.  As  a  consequence,  their  real 
life,  or  growing  power,  is  limited  to  a  short  portion 
just  behind  the  root  tip.  The  root  tip  is  protected  in 
its  pushing  movement  through  the  soil  by  a  thimble- 
like  covering,  called  the  root  cap.  This  may  be  seen 
by  the  naked  eye  if  the  end  of  a  rootlet  of  a  bean  grown 
in  water  is  examined  carefully. 

Just  back  of  the  center  of  the  root  cap  the  cells  in- 
crease in  number  by  dividing,  the  separate  divisions 
growing  to  the  size  of  the  parent  cell.  Each,  then, 
divides  into  other  cells,  which  in  turn  grow  to  normal  size, 
so  that  the  root  cap  is  constantly  pushed  forward. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


129 


Darwin  discovered  that  the  root  tip  in  its  search 
for  plant  food  and  moisture  does  not  move  straight 
forward,  but  seeks  for  the  line 
of  least  resistance.  As  it  thus 
takes  advantage  of  openings 
in  the  soil,  an  oscillating,  or 
pendulum-like,  movement  re- 
sults. 

Branching  of  Roots.  — The 
roots  of  the  annual  crops 
grown  on  the  farm  branch 
very  freely.  This  is  equiv- 
alent to  saying  that  they  can 
take  up  a  large  amount  of 
moisture  and  food  from  the 
soil,  because  the  greater  the 
number  of  root  branches,  the 
greater  the  number  of  root  +/ 
hairs,  or  absorbing  surface  of 
the  root.  The  root  branches 
usually  spread  out  over  the 
part  of  the  soil  pulverized  by 
the  plow,  for  here  the  plants 
seem  to  find  the  greatest 
amount  of  nourishment. 

The  rapid  way  in  which 
roots  will  branch  under  favor- 
able conditions  may  be  shown  by  burying  a  piece 
of  manure  in  the  soil  near  a  plant.  In  a  short  time  the 
plant  will  send  its  rootlets  in  all  directions  through  it. 
An  old  bone,  which  contains  an  abundance  of  plant 
food,  when  buried  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  is 
often  found  covered  with  a  thick  net  of  fibrous  roots. 
M.  &  H.  AG.  — 9 


-rt 


FIG.  54.  —  Roots  of  Young  Wheat 
Plant. 

rh,  root  hairs,  surrounded  by  grains  of 
soil;  rt,  root  tips. 


130  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

As  the  thriftiness  of  a  plant  depends  upon  its  root 
branching,  it  is  important  to  the  farmer  to  know  what 
will  induce  the  process.  It  has  been  found  that  trans- 
planting, which  consists  in  taking  the  plant  from  its 
place  and  replanting  it  in  another  place,  stimulates  the 
branching  of  roots.  It  is  therefore  beneficial  to  the 
growth  of  the  plant  if  done  under  proper  conditions.  It 
is  sometimes  helpful  to  a  plant  to  transplant  it  several 
times  in  one  season. 

Root  pruning,  or  cutting  off  the  root  a  few  inches 
below  the  surface,  often  stimulates  the  growth  of 
lateral  branches,  and  if  done  to  trees  with  a  taproot, 
like  the  walnut  and  hickory,  the  year  before  trans- 
planting usually  secures  a  sufficient  growth  of  root- 
lets to  make  transplanting  successful. 

Plant  Food  through  the  Roots.  —  Although  it  has 
been  stated  that  the  root  hairs  cling  tenaciously  to 
minute  particles  of  soil,  it  must  not  be  thought  that 
these  particles  ever  enter  the  root  of  the  plant. 

Root  hairs  take  up  as  food  only  mineral  matter  held 
in  solution.  Ordinary  soil  water  contains  a  large 
amount  of  this  matter.  How  it  passes  into  the  root 
to  nourish  the  plant  has  been  explained  under  osmosis. 
The  power  of  selecting  just  the  mineral  food  the  partic- 
ular plant  needs  and  rejecting  all  other  seems  to  reside 
in  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell,  but  how  the  protoplasm 
exercises  this  power  is  an  unsolved  mystery.  The 
protoplasm  in  the  root  hair  of  the  barley,  for  instance, 
will  select  a  large  proportion  of  silicon  from  the  soil 
water,  while  the  protoplasm  in  the  root  hair  of  the 
clover  will  take  only  a  relatively  small  amount  of  the 
same  food,  and  yet  both  plants  may  be  growing  under 
identical  conditions. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


The  Stem. --The  stem  of  the  plant,  the  part  from 
which  all  the  other  parts  of  the  plant  spring,  is  the 
axis  of  the  plant.  Some  stems  stand  erect  and  support 
the  whole  plant,  as  in  trees  and  shrubs ;  others  lie  on 
the  ground  or  cling  to  some  object  for  support,  as  vines ; 
still  others  grow  under- 
ground, and  thus  seem 
like  roots,  but  that  they 
are  really  stems  may 
readily  be  discovered. 

Underground  Stems. 
—  Among  the  under- 
ground stems  of  inter-  UJSt.- 
est  to  the  farmer  are 
the  potato,  the  quack 
grass,  and  the  wild  morn- 
ing glory. 

The  potato  is  the 
thickened  end  of  an 
underground  stem.  Its 
true  stem  character  is 
shown  by  the  buds, 
eyes,  it  bears.  An  under- 
ground stem  like  the 
potato  is  called  a  tuber. 
The  sweet  potato,  on  the  contrary,  is  an  enlargement 
of  the  root. 

The  underground  stems  of  the  quack  grass  and  the 
wild  morning  glory  make  these  two  plants  great  weed 
pests. 

Note.  —  Canada  thistle  has  been  considered  a  plant  with  an  under- 
ground stem,  but  the  running  root  of  this  plant  lacks  nodes,  scales,  or 
buds  and  is  therefore  properly  a  root. 


FIG.  55. —  Potato  Plant. 

U  si,  underground  stems;  R,  roots;  the  tubers  are 
the  thickened  ends  of  the  underground  stems. 
(Much  reduced.  After  Frank  and  Tschirch.) 


132  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Although  their  stems  above  ground  may  be  cut  off  and 
seeding  time  prevented,  the  spread  of  the  plant  is  not 
hindered,  for  the  underground  stems  still  grow,  plow- 
ing or  chopping  off  the  stems  serving  merely  to  make  a 
bad  matter  worse  by  increasing  the 
,v  number  of  separate  plants.  Under- 

ground stems  of  this  kind  are  called 
rootstalks. 

Nodes.  —  Stems  are  made  up  of 
successive  joints,  or  lengths.  At  the 
point  where  one  joint,  or  section, 
^  joins  another  there  is  an  enlargement 
of  the  stem.  This,  the  point  where 
the  leaf  is  often  attached,  is  called 
a  node.  The  section  of  stem  between 
two  nodes  is  called  an  internode. 

If  the  leaves  have  fallen,  the  nodes 
can  be  plainly  seen  by  the  leaf  scars 

FIG.  56.  —  Stems  of  Box  \  J  J 

Elder  (/i)   and  wild     or  by  the  slight  enlargement  of  the 

Grape  (B) ;  N,  Nodes.       stem 

Stems  and  their  branches  grow  by  adding  sections,  or 
joints,  and  also  by  lengthening  their  internodes. 

The  internodes  of  the  main  stem  are  longer  than  those 
of  the  branches.  The  internodes  of  only  the  newer  parts 
of  woody  plants  lengthen.  If  an  internode  ceases  to 
lengthen  during  any  growing  season,  it  will  not  usually 
resume  growth,  but  will  remain  fixed  at  that  length. 
When  an  internode  grows  rapidly,  it  usually  grows  to  a 
considerable  length,  the  length  and  also  the  diameter 
depending  upon  the  rapidity  of  growth.  As  might  be 
expected,  growth  is  much  more  rapid  in  the  spring 
than  in  the  fall.  We  may  often  distinguish  the  long 
internodes  of  spring  following  the  short  ones  of  autumn. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


T — 


-L 


To  increase  Branching  of  Stems.  —  As  the  stem 
lengthens  the  most  rapidly  just  behind  the  growing 
point,  or  tip,  of  the  stem,  we  may  check  the  growth  of 
the  stem  by  pinching  off  the  terminal  node.  In  this 
way  branching  will  be  increased,  be- 
cause by  checking  the  growth  of  the 
terminal  node  the  growing  strength 
of  the  plant  is  stimulated  at  points 
farther  back.  This  corresponds  to 
the  pruning  of  the  root  to  increase 
root  branching. 

Buds.  —  A  bud  is  a  resting  grow- 
ing point.  It  may  develop  into  a  leaf 
and  then  is  called  a  leaf  bud,  or  into  a 
flower  and  is  called  a  flower  bud.  The 
main  stem  grows  by  the  develop- 
ment of  the  terminal,  or  end  bud,  the 
branches  grow  by  the  development  of 
lateral,  or  side,  buds.  As  the  lateral 
buds  usually  grow  in  the  crotches,  or 
axils,  of  leaves,  they  are  also  called  axillary  buds.  Very 
often  there  are  several  buds  grouped  in  some  way  in  a 

single  leaf  axil,  one  above 
the  other,  as  in  the  butter- 
nut, or  side  by  side,  as  in 
the  box  elder. 

Lateral  buds  are  pro- 
duced in  early  summer 
and  usually  remain  dor- 
mantuntil  the  next  spring, 
but  if  the  terminal  bud 
is  destroyed,  the  lateral  buds  may  be  stimulated  to 
growth  the  same  summer  that  they  are  formed.  In 


FIG.  57.  —  Buds. 
T,  terminal ;  L,  lateral. 


FIG.  58.  —  Sycamore  Bud  protected  by 
the  Petiole. 


134  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

some  plants  the  lateral  buds  are  concealed  beneath  the 
bark  during  the  summer  of  their  formation,  remaining 
invisible  until  the  next  summer.  Others,  for  example, 
the  locust  and  buttonwood,  have  their  lateral  buds 
hidden  in  a  cuplike  cavity  at  the  base  of  the  petiole, 
or  stem,  of  the  leaf. 

Latent  and  Adventitious  Buds.  —  Not  all  of  the 
lateral  buds  on  the  stem  of  a  tree  develop  into  branches. 
This  failure  of  some  buds  to  develop  in  a  normal  way 
may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  certain  other  buds  get 
started  to  growing  well  and  appropriate  all  the  nourish- 
ment. Sometimes  these  undeveloped  buds,  called  la- 
tent buds,  are  destroyed,  and  sometimes  they  remain 
dormant  for  a  number  of  years.  If  through  pruning, 
pinching,  or  injury  to  newer  buds,  sufficient  nutrition 
be  furnished  the  latent  buds  at  any  time,  they  may  de- 
velop and  form  shoots.  This  is  seen  sometimes  when 
trees  develop  new  shoots  on  the  trunk  or  on  the  older 
parts  of  branches,  especially  noticeable  when  early 
frosts  destroy  the  first  buds. 

More  commonly,  however,  the  irregular  shoots  com- 
ing from  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  as  in  the  elm,  or  from  the 
roots,  which  normally  do  not  have  buds,  as  in  the  silver- 
leaved  poplar,  are  from  adventitious  buds.  These  may 
be  defined  as  buds  which  occur  at  irregular  or  unusual 
places,  that  is,  not  terminal  or  axillary.  They  come  in 
no  particular  order,  being  caused  to  grow  by  some 
wound  or  mutilation.  The  willows,  poplars,  and  chest- 
nuts have  young  shoots  from  adventitious  buds  in  large 
numbers.  Some  willows  are  cut  back  in  order  to  stimu- 
late the  growth  of  adventitious  buds,  which  will  form 
pliable  young  shoots  adapted  for  basket  weaving. 

Bulbs  and  Bulblets.  —  Bulbs  are  really  forms  of  buds, 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


135 


having  thick,  fleshy  scales,  or  leaves,  on  an  exceedingly 
short  stem,  the  thickened  leaves  furnishing  nourishment 


Onion  Garlic  Wild  Lfly 

FIG.  59. — Typical  Bulbs;  B,  Buds.     Notice  the  Buds  (Cloves)  of  Garlic. 

and  protection.     In  the  axils  of  the  leaves  are  smaller 
lateral  buds.     The  onion  is  a  good  illustration  of  a  bulb. 

Bulblets  are  very  small 
bulbs  which  appear  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves 
of  some  lilies  and  in  the 
flower  clusters  of  the 
leek  and  the 


onion. 

They  do  not  develop 
into  branches,  but  fall 
from  the  plant  to  the 
ground  and  there  form 
new  plants. 

Exogenous  and  En- 
dogenous Stems. — 
Flowering  plants  are  di- 
vided according  to  the  manner  of  growth  of  their  stems 


FIG.  60.  —  Section  of  an  Exogenous  Stem. 


136 


AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 


into  two  great  classes.  By  far  the  greater  number 
of  plants  are  outside  growers ;  that  is,  the  woody  part 
of  the  stem  is  arranged  in  rings  or  layers  about  a  cen- 
ter, called  a  pith,  and  outside  of  this  is  a  corky  layer, 
called  the  bark.  The  growth  each  year  occurs  by  addi- 
tion on  the  outside  of  the  previously  formed  wooden 
rings,  although  inside  the  bark.  The  outside  growers 
are  called  Exogens,  or  Exogenous  plants. 

Note-  — The  inner  bark  of  the  stem  contains  some  very  fine  ducts, 
or  tubes,  called  sieve  tubes.  Through  these  tubes  the  larger  part  of 
the  liquid  food  prepared  in  the  leaves  is  passed  to  parts  of  the  plant  foi 
storage  or  to  increase  the  size  of  the  plant.  The  flow  of  sap  in  general 
is,  then,  upward  through  the  sapwood,  and  downward  through  the  sieve 
tubes  of  the  inner  bark.  Besides  this  there  is  a  considerable  movement 
of  sap  from  one  cell  to  another,  both  upward,  downward,  and  laterally. 

Between  the  bark  and  the  sapwood  is  a  very  thin 
layer,  or  zone,  that  is  the  growing  part  of  the  tree.  It  is 

called  the  cambium  layer. 
It  is  well  supplied  with 
cells  filled  with  proto- 
plasm. In  spring  this 
layer  becomes  so  gorged 
with  nourishment  that 
if  a  twig  of  hickory  or 
willow  is  pounded,  the 
cambium  layer  is  broken 
up  and  the  bark  may  be 
slipped  off  the  wood. 
Boys  utilize  their  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  this 

FIG.  61.  —  Section  of  an  Endogenous  Stem.    .  ,  .  1-1  T 

in  making  whistles.     It 

is  the  same  fact  that  tempts  goats  and  calves  to  bark 
trees  in  the  spring,  and  enables  savages,  in  time  of 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


137 


drought,  to  live  for  a  long  time  on  the  buds  and  bark  of 
trees. 

When  the  cambium  layer  of  an  actively  growing  stem 
is  held  in  contact  with  the  same  layer  in  another  growing 
stem  of  the  same  kind  or  of  a  closely  similar  kind,  the 
two  may  grow  together  at  the  point  of  contact.  It  is 
this  fact  that  makes  grafting  possible.  (See  page  159.) 
The  stems  of  endogens,  or  inside  growers,  have  prom- 
inent nodes  and  are  hollow,  as  in  the  grasses  and  the 
bamboo ;  or  the  center  of  the  stem  is  filled  with  pith,  as 
in  the  corn  stalk.  The  pith  is  traversed  with  fibers 
which  are  bundles  of  tubes  with  other  vessels  and  fibers. 

Leaves. --The  leaves  of  any  given  species  of  plant 
grow  from  the  nodes  of  the  stem  in  a  well-defined  ar- 
rangement which  rarely  varies  in  that  species.  They 


Alternate  Opposite  Whorled 

FIG.  62. — Arrangement  of  Leaves. 

may  have  an  opposite  arrangement,  that  is,  with  two 
leaves,  one  on  each  side  of  the  node,  or  they  may  have  an 
alternate  arrangement,  that  is,  one  leaf  at  a  node. 
Occasionally  there  are  more  than  two  leaves  at  a  node 
with  the  space  around  the  stem  divided  equally  among 
them.  This  is  known  as  the  whorled  arrangement. 


138 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


Apex 


Get  a  number  of  twigs  and  examine  the  leaf  arrange- 
ment. 

Parts  of  the  Leaf.  -  -  The  main  part  of  the  leaf  is  called 
the  blade.     The  blade  is  attached  to  the  stem  or  branch 
by  a  petiole.     At  the  base  of  the 
petiole,  and  sometimes  clasping  the 
stem,  are  often  found  leaflike  or 
thorny  appendages,  called  stipules. 
The  part  of  the  blade  farthest  re- 
moved from  the  petiole  is  called 
the  apex.     The  part  of  the  blade 
nearest  the  petiole  is   called    the 
base  of  the  leaf.     The  framework 
of  the  blade  is  made  up  of  fibrous 
material,    called    ribs   and    veins. 
From  the  base  of  the  leaf,  running 
through  the  blade  to  the  apex,  is 
the  largest  of  the  ribs,  called  the 
midrib.     The  branches  are  called 
veins,  and  the  smaller  ones  veinlets. 
Venation    of    Leaves.  —  Vena- 
'  tion  is  the  plan  of  distribution  of 
ribs  and  veins  to  the    leaf   blade.     Leaves    are    either 
netted-veined  or  parallel-veined. 

Netted-veined  leaves,  as  the  name  indicates,  have 
veins  branching  from  the  midrib,  dividing  and  sub- 
dividing until  the  whole  leaf  blade  is  covered  with 
a  fine  network.  This  venation  is  clearly  shown  in 
the  leaf  of  the  beet,  the  oak,  and  the  maple.  In  gen- 
eral the  exogenous  plants  are  netted-veined. 

Parallel-veined  leaves  have  small  parallel  ribs  run- 
ning from  the  base  of  the  midrib  throughout  the  blade, 
but  without  branching,  although  there  are  minute 


Petiole- 
Stipule 


Stipule 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  139 

veinlets  joining  the  parallel  veins.  For  this  venation 
examine  the  leaves  of  grass,  corn,  and  the  lily.  Nearly 
all  endogenous  plants  have  parallel-veined  leaves,  hence 


A  B 

FIG.  64.  —  Venation  of  Leaves. 
A ,  netted-veined ;  B,  C,  parallel-veined. 

the  leaf  venation  forms  a  ready  though  not  a  certain 
means  of  distinguishing  these  two  great  classes  of  plants. 

Forms  of  Leaves.  — -  Figures  illustrating  and  naming 
the  forms  of  leaves,  their  margins,  bases,  and  apexes, 
are  in  the  Appendix. 

Structure  of  the  Leaf  Blade.  —  If  a  cross  section  of 
a  leaf  is  examined  under  a  high  power  microscope,  the 
leaf  will  be  found  to  be  made  up  of  cells  of  various 
forms.  On  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf  will  be  seen  a  thin 
skin  that  covers  the  whole.  This  colorless  skin,  the 
epidermis,  serves  as  a  protection  to  the  cells  under- 
neath. It  is  easily  removed  from  some  fleshy  or  soft 
leaves,  like  those  of  the  houseleek.  Children  often 
suck  the  leaves  of  the  live-forever,  and  thus  loosen  the 
epidermis. 

Just  under  the  epidermis,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf, 


140 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


will  be  found  rows  of  regular-shaped  cells  somewhat 

closely  packed  together. 

This  surface  being  transparent  is  fitted  to  transmit 

the  sunlight.  The  cells  on 
the  underside  of  the  blade 
are  more  irregular  in  shape 
and  much  less  closely  com- 
pacted. They  do  not  fill 
the  entire  space,  there  being 
some  cavities  between  the 
cells,  called  intercellular 
spaces. 

From  some  of  the  larger 
intercellular  spaces  there  are 
openings  through  the  epi- 

FIG.  65. -Magnified  section  of  an     dermis  to  the  outside    air. 

Apple  Leaf  from  its  Upper  to  its      These  Openings,   Or  mouths, 

are  called  stomata  (singular, 
stoma).  Around  each  stoma 
are  two  liplike  cells  which  have  power  to  close  the  open- 
ing. They  are 
called  guard  cells. 
If  the  cells  of 
the  leaf  are  ex- 
amined with  a  still 
higher  power  mi- 
croscope, we  shall 
see  in  all  but  those 
of  the  epidermis 
some  small  bod- 
ies that  contain 
green  coloring  matter.  This  matter  is  named  chloro- 
phyll, and  is  what  gives  the  green  color  to  the  leaf. 


Lower  Surface. 

/,  intercellular  spaces. 


FIG.  66. 


S  '3 

•Stomata  of  an  Oak  Leaf  (magnified). 


In  A  the  under  epidermis  has  been  removed  to  show  sto- 
matu,  g;  B,  a  section  of  a  stoma  showing  intercellular 
space,  a;  guard  cell,  g;  and  orifice  of  stoma,  s. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  141 

Functions  of  Leaves. --This  elaborate  and  peculiar 
arrangement  of  the  cells  of  a  leaf  is  an  important  feature 
of  plant  life. 

Leaves  do  three  kinds  of  work : 

1.  They  furnish  means  for  the  evaporation  of  water 
brought  up  from  the  soil. 

2.  They  take  in  air,  utilizing  the  carbon  dioxide  dur- 
ing the  process  of  food  making  and  throwing  off  oxy- 
gen. 

3.  They   change   the   substances   received   from   the 
soil  and  from  the  air  into  plant  food  in  a  form  capable 
of  forming  plant  tissue. 

Transpiration.  —  All  parts  of  the  plant  that  are  ex- 
posed to  the  air  evaporate  water  more  or  less  rapidly 
in  the  form  of  vapor.  This  process  is  called  transpira- 
tion. 

Leaves,  presenting  as  they  do  so  much  surface  to  the 
air,  are  particularly  well  adapted  to  promote  trans- 
piration. Under  the  influence  of  sunlight  the  stomata 
remain  open  during  the  day  and  thus  present  numerous 
openings  for  the  passage  of  vapor  into  the  air.  A  proper 
amount  of  transpiration  is  beneficial  to  the  plant  as 
it  aids  in  the  circulation  of  water  to  the  extremities 
of  the  plant.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  air  is  very 
dry,  transpiration  goes  on  so  rapidly  that  it  retards 
the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  the  water  pressure  of  the 
cells  is  so  reduced  that  the  plant  may  shrink,  or  wilt. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  stomata  aid  materi- 
ally in  regulating  the  amount  of  moisture  transpired. 
When  the  cells  of  the  plant  are  full  of  moisture,  the 
guard  cells  about  the  stomata  enlarge  the  openings  into 
the  intercellular  spaces  and  transpiration  is  increased ; 
on  the  other  hand,  when  the  cells  have  transpired  more 


142  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

water  than  is  resupplied  from  the  soil,  the  guard  cells 
close  the  openings  till  the  cells  of  the  plant  again  be- 
come filled. 

Quantity  of  Water  Transpired. --The  amount  of 
water  passing  off  by  transpiration  is  enormous.  To 
ripen  an  ordinary  crop  of  small  grain  there  passes  out 
through  the  plants  between  three  hundred  and  four  hun- 
dred tons  of  water  an  acre.  An  ordinary  hard  wood 
tree  will  evaporate  about  as  much  water  as  is  evapo- 
rated from  the  surface  of  a  body  of  water  equal  to  one 
third  the  total  leaf  surface  of  the  tree.  A  grass  plant 
has  been  found  to  give  off  its  own  weight  of  water  every 
twenty-four  hours  in  dry,  hot,  summer  weather. 

These  large  amounts  of  water  are  absorbed  by  the 
roots,  carried  through  the  plant  and  given  off  by  the 
leaves  because  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  water  is  so 
diluted  that  the  plant  must  take  up  great  quantities  of 
the  water  in  order  to  get  food  enough  for  sustenance  and 
growth. 

Leaves  take  in  Plant  Food  (CO2)  from  the  Air. — The 
food  which  the  plant  takes  in  through  the  roots  con- 
sists entirely  of  mineral  salts  in  solution.  But  this 
is  not  all  the  food  that  goes  to  the  upbuilding  of  plant 
tissue.  The  minerals  which  go  to  make  the  plant 
substance  will  be  found,  after  combustion,  in  the  form 
of  ashes.  Nearly  all  of  the  plant  tissue  that  passes  off 
into  the  air  during  burning  came  from  the  air  while  the 
plant  was  growing.  Air  has  mixed  with  it  a  substance 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  life  of  the  vegetable  world. 
This  substance,  known  as  carbon  dioxide  (CO2),  is  a 
compound  of  carbon  and  oxygen. 

The  leaves  of  the  plant  are  the  great  absorbents  of 
carbon  dioxide.  It  enters  through  the  stomata  into 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


the  intercellular  spaces  and  then  into  the  cells.  In 
these  cells  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  chlorophyll 
bodies.  Under  the  influence  of  sunlight  the  chloro- 
phyll can  decompose  the  carbon  dioxide  into  its  ele- 
ments, carbon  and 
oxygen,  and  water 
(H20)  into  its  ele- 
ments, hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  and  re- 
combine  these  ele- 
ments into  new 
compounds,  starch 
and  two  allied  sub- 
stances, sugar  and 
oil.  The  starch 
formed  is  changed 
into  sugar  and  then 
combines  with  the 
mineral  nitrates, 
sulphates,  and  phos- 
phates taken  in 
through  the  roots,  and  forms  a  complex  compound  in 
a  manner  little  understood.  This  is  food  for  the  pro- 
toplasm of  the  cells.  When  supplied  with  it  in  proper 
amounts,  the  cells  multiply  in  all  parts,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  plant  grows.  These  starchlike  substances 
may  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  plant  which  has  chloro- 
phyll bodies,  that  is  to  say,  in  any  part  that  is  green, 
but  the  leaves  are  their  greatest  producers.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  it  is  only  in  the  presence  of  light 
that  the  chlorophyll  bodies  can  perform  this  work  of 
decomposition  and  recombination  which  results  in  plant 
food  and  consequent  plant  growth. 


FIG.  67.  — •  Diagram  of  the  Formation  of  Starch. 


144  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

Note.  —  Take  a  green  leaf  from  a  plant  at  6  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon. Soak  it  in  alcohol  to  remove  the  chlorophyll,  then  put  it  inlo 
iodine  and  note  that  it  turns  dark  purple,  showing  that  starch  is  present. 
Take  another  leaf  oft"  the  same  plant  at  5  o'clock  in  the  morning  and 
give  it  the  same  test,  and  no  starch  is  revealed.  The  starch  has  been 
changed  to  sugar. 

The  Flow  of  Plant  Food  Downward. --This  food, 
prepared  almost  wholly  in  the  leaves  of  plants,  must 
also  pass  to  other  parts  of  the  plant  if  they  are  to  grow. 
There  is,  therefore,  in  all  growing  plants  a  movement 
of  the  prepared  food  from  the  leaves  to  the  stems  and 
roots.  To  demonstrate  this,  cut  a  little  notch  through 
the  bark  and  a  little  into  the  cambium  layer  of  a  tree. 
The  uninjured  cells  around  the  edges  of  the  cambium 
layer  on  the  upper  side  of  the  notch  will  form  a  new  layer 
of  cells,  but  not  on  the  lower  side,  thus  showing  that 
the  cell  food  is  coming  from  above.  In  exogenous 
plants  the  downward  flow  of  plant  food  is  through  the 
inner  layers  of  the  bark. 

Girdling  Trees.  —  Because  of  this  downward  flow 
of  the  prepared  food  and  upward  flow  of  cell  sap,  it  is 
easy  to  see  what  the  effect  would  be  of  cutting  a  notch 
through  the  bark  of  a  tree  completely  around  it.  The 
downward  current  of  food  prepared  by  the  leaves  would 
be  checked  and  the  roots  would  die  for  lack  of  food. 
If  this  is  done  after  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves  in  the 
spring,  they  may  remain  green  for  some  time  because,  as 
we  have  learned,  the  cell  sap  passes  upward  through  the 
uninjured  sapwood,  so  that  the  leaves  receive  nourish- 
ment for  some  time.  If,  however,  the  notch  is  cut 
through  the  sapwood  also,  the  whole  tree  will  soon  die. 

Food  Storage  and  Uses.  —  Not  all  the  food  prepared 
by  the  plant  is  used  in  growth.  The  surplus  is  stored 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  145 

in  the  form  of  starch,  as  in  the  potato,  or  sugar,  as  in 
the  beet,  or  oil,  as  in  cottonseed.  Annuals,  as  corn, 
peas,  oats,  and  beans,  that  is,  plants  that  germinate, 
grow,  bear  flower  and  seed,  then  perish,  all  in  one  season, 
store  their  surplus  food  in  the  seed  for  its  nourishment 
during  germination.  Biennials,  two-year  plants,  store 
food  during  the  first  year  generally  in  their  large  tap- 
roots, and  the  next  year  use  this  food  in  the  produc- 
tion of  flower  and  seed.  Such  are  the  carrot,  beet, 
celery,  cabbage,  and  parsnip.  Perennials  use  only  a 
part  of  their  food  for  the  production  of  flower  and  seed 
each  year,  and  use  the  remainder  for  maintenance  of 
life  during  the  winter  and  leaf  growth  in  the  spring. 

The  crowning  part  of  the  plant  is  the  flower,  because 
it  is  the  flower  which  produces  the  seed,  the  embryo, 
or  germ,  of  the  new  plant. 

Parts  of  the  Flower. --The  normal  flower  is  made 
up  of  four  parts  :  the  calyx,  a  whorl  of  more  or  less 
united  leaves, 

7  stamen 

Called    SZpalS,    USU-  stamen  /• — (TV~    n      stamen 

ally  of  a  green  color, 
just    underneath 

the    corolla,    which 

.1        i  '  j 

is  the  colored  part  ,  ;//// 

r  ,1         n  /    :Y  Cttlyx— \WV/W/ calyx 

ot  the  nower  (other 
than  green),  made 

&  FIG.  68.  —  Section  of  a  Cherry  Blossom. 

up  of  more  or  less 

distinct  parts,  called  petals.  Around  the  inside  of  the 
corolla  are  slender,  threadlike  organs,  called  stamens, 
which  are  made  up  of  the  stalk,  or  filament,  the  enlarged 
top,  or  anther,  and  the  yellow  dust,  or  pollen;  the 
center  of  the  flower  is  occupied  by  a  slender  organ, 
called  the  pistil,  which  is  also  made  up  of  three  parts, 
M.  &  H.  AG.  — 10 


146 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


the  enlarged  base,  or  ovary,  the  supporting  column, 
or  style,  and  the  flattened  top,  or  stigma.  In  the 
ovary  are  one  or  more  small  bodies,  ovules,  which  will 


caly. 


FIG.  69.  —  Calyx  and  Co- 
rolla of  Morning  Glory. 


FIG.  70.  —  Stamens. 
a,  filament;  b,  anther. 


stigma. 


develop  into  seeds  under  proper  conditions.  Not  all 
flowers  are  complete,  sometimes  one  part  and  sometimes 
another  being  wanting. 

Fertilization,  or  the  process  by  which  the  ovule  be- 
comes transformed  into  life -bearing  seed, 
begins  with  the  formation  of  pollen. 

Each  grain  of  pollen  is  a  single  cell  con- 
taining protoplasm.  During  a  certain 
period  the  pollen  grains  from  the  anthers 
readily  cling  to  the  surface  of  the  stigma, 
which  is  generally  made  moist  by  the  se- 
cretion of  a  sticky  liquid.  This  process  is 
called  pollination.  The  pollen  grains  thus 
alighting  send  a  slender  tube  through  the 
stigma  and  style  to  the  ovule  in  the  ovary. 
Then,  and  not  till  then,  occurs  the  trans- 
formation of  the  dormant  ovule  in  the  ovary  into  active 
life.  This  fertilized  cell  will  now  grow  into  a  seed, 


ovary 


FIG.  71.  —  Pistil 
of  Wild  Gera- 
nium. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  147 

containing  the  embryo  of  a  new  plant  and  the  food 
about  it  to  nourish  it  during  germination. 

Pollination  is  brought  about  by  insects,  which  carry 
the  pollen  on  their  bodies,  by  the  wind,  or  by  the  force 
of  gravity,  as  the  anthers  are  usually  higher  than  the 
stigma.  Animals,  birds,  water,  and  man  also  play 
an  important  part  in  pollination. 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  above  that  a  flower 
that  has  no  pistil  can  produce  no  seed,  nor  does  every 
flower  that  has  a  pistil  necessarily  produce  seed.  Pol- 
lination is  not  always  followed  by  fertilization,  for 
flowers  that  appear  perfectly  normal  often  fail  to  pro- 
duce seed. 

Perfect  and  Imperfect  Flowers.  —  A  perfect  flower 
is  one  that  contains  both  stamens  and  pistils,  as  in  the 
apple.  An  imperfect  flower  may  be  staminate,  having 
stamens  only,  or  pistillate,  having  pistils  only.  Some 
plants,  called  monoecious,  bear  staminate  a.nd  pistillate 
flowers  on  the  same  plant,  as  hickory,  cucumber,  and 
corn,  while  others,  called  dioecious,  have  the  two  kinds 
of  imperfect  flowers  on  different  plants,  as  the  hop. 

Cross-pollination.  —  It  is  evident  that  pistillate 
flowers  can  produce  no  pollen,  therefore  if  the  ovule  of 
these  flowers  is  to  be  fertilized,  it  must  be  from  pollen 
from  another  flower  which  bears  stamens.  This  pro- 
cess is  known  as  cross-pollination.  The  pollen  may 
come  from  a  staminate  flower  on  the  same  plant  or 
from  one  on  a  different  plant  of  the  same  species  or  a 
plant  of  a  different  species.  In  the  last  two  cases  the 
fertilization  results  in  a  cross,  or  hybrid. 

Artificial  cross-pollination  may  be  accomplished  by 
first  carefully  clipping  off  the  anthers  of  a  perfect 
flower  before  the  pollen  is  mature,  then  inclosing  the 


148  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

blossom  in  a  sack  of  thin  cloth  or  paper  to  prevent 
an  accidental  or  undesired  pollination.  After  waiting 
a  period  of  from  one  to  two  days,  the  pollen  of  the 
desired  blossom  is  applied  to  the  stigma  of  the  clipped 
flower  by  bringing  an  anther  containing  mature  pollen 
in  direct  contact  with  it  or  by  removing  some  of  the 
pollen  with  a  fine  brush  and  transferring  it  to  the  stigma. 
The  blossom  should  be  inclosed  again  until  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  ovary  shows  that  fertilization  has  taken 
place. 

Planting  for  Pollination.  —  It  follows  from  what  has 
been  said  about  the  necessity  of  pollination  to  seed- 
production  that  the  farmer  must  be  careful  in  planting 
crops  which  bear  imperfect  flowers  or  there  will  be 
nothing  to  show  in  fruit  and  seed  at  the  end  of  the 
season.  All  dioecious  plants,  like  the  hop  and  some 
varieties  of  the  strawberry,  must  have  pistillate  and 
staminate  plants  in  close  proximity  or  no  fruit  will 
be  produced.  Many  varieties  of  plums  and  pears 
require  pollen  of  a  different  variety  in  order  to  be 
productive. 

Flower  Buds.  —  As  a  flower  bud  is  a  modified  leaf 
bud,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other 
without  careful  observation.  They  may  be  on  each 
side  of  the  leaf  bud,  as  in  the  peach,  or  may  be  formed 
on  short,  thick,  crooked  branches,  called  spurs,  that 
are  three  or  more  years  old,  as  in  the  apple  and  pear. 
In  the  apple,  cherry,  and  peach  the  flower  buds  are 
usually  thicker  and  more  rounded. 

Notes-  — At  what  time  in  the  life  of  the  bud  its  character  as  a  leaf 
bud  or  as  a  flower  bud  is  determined  is  not  definitely  known.  Sometimes 
the  buds  on  the  spurs  of  the  apple  tree  all  become  leaf  buds. 

Checking  the  growth  of  a  perennial  plant  about  midsummer  tends  to 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


149 


form  flower  buds  for  the  next  year's  growth.  As  the  dry  season  often 
occurs  in  midsummer,  trees  suffer  a  natural  check  in  the  reduced  amount 
of  moisture  furnished.  An  abnormal  check  to  growth  may  be  given 
by  pinching  off  the  terminal  buds  or  by  cutting  off  the  ends  of  the 
roots.  After  the  tree  is  in  vigorous  growth  in  the  spring,  an  otherwise 
barren  tree  may  be  forced  to  bear  fruit  by  ringing,  which  obstructs  the 
downward  flow  of  the  sap  to  the  roots.  The  same  result  may  be  pro- 
duced by  violently  twisting  the  branch  which  it  is  desired  should  bear 
or  by  simply  bending  it  or  tying  it  in  an  unnatural  position.  These 
harsh  measures  probably  shorten  the  life  of  the  tree  by  cutting  off  some 
of  the  normal  food  supply  of  the  roots. 

It  is  of  interest  to  the  farmer  to  know  how  to  increase 
the   growth  of  flower  buds,   inasmuch   as   his  crop   of 


in 

FIG.  72.  —  Buds. 


IV 


I,  Pottawattomie  plum:  in  each  group  the  central  bud  is  a.  leaf  bud;  the  two  outer  buds 
are  flower  buds.  II,  European  plum;  B,  young  wood;  A,  wood  of  preceding  year; 
S,  flower  spurs.  Ill,  Morello  cherry;  B,  young  wood;  A,  wood  of  preceding  year; 
F,  clusters  of  flower  buds.  IV,  apple :  leaf  buds.  V,  apple :  F,  flower  bud. 


150  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

fruit  or  seed  depends  wholly  upon  the  number  of 
flowers  developed.  This  subject  is  not  well  understood 
by  the  botanist,  but  this  general  principle  seems  to  be 
fairly  well  established :  Whatever  tends  to  favor  the 
accumulation  of  surplus  food  promotes  flower -bud  forma- 
tion. This  means  sufficient  air  and  sunlight  and  pro- 
tection of  the  foliage,  sufficient  plant  food  and  moisture 
in  the  soil,  and  a  moderate  check  to  growth  after  a 
proper  growth  has  been  attained. 

Methods  of  Plant  Propagation.  —  Plant  propaga- 
tion is  the  multiplication  of  plants  by  natural  or  arti- 
ficial means.  Flowering  plants  are  reproduced  both 
naturally  and  artificially  by  seeds,  rootstocks,  stolons, 
suckers,  bulbs,  corms,  and  tubers.  Flowerless  plants 
are  reproduced  by  spores,  a  peculiar  cell  structure  with 
no  embryo;  but  as  only  the  lower  orders  of  plants  are 
thus  propagated,  the  consideration  of  this  method 
will  be  left  until  plant  diseases  are  studied. 

Seed  Propagation.  —  We  have  learned  that  a  seed 
is  a  plant  in  embryo  with  a  supply  of  food  formed  by 
the  parent  plant  either  in  the  embryo  or  surrounding 
it.  The  whole  is  inclosed  in  seed  coats.. 

As  the  farmer's  crops  depend  so  largely  upon  the 
germinating  and  growing  power  of  the  seed  used,  knowl- 
edge of  how  to  select  seed  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  him.  There  are  many  reasons  why  seeds  do  not 
germinate  even  when  given  the  proper  amount  of  heat, 
water,  and  oxygen.  They  may  have  been  kept  too 
long,  they  may  have  been  stored  where  it  was  either 
too  dry  or  too  damp,  they  may  have  been  gathered 
before  complete  maturity,  they  may  have  been  frozen 
or  chilled  before  being  dried,  or  they  may  have  been 
injured  by  insects  or  fungus  growths.  No  one  of  these 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


defects  is  visible  upon  examination  of  the  seed,  therefore 
successful  farmers  generally  make  germination  tests 
of  their  grains  before  planting 
in  order  to  reduce  to  a  min- 
imum the  chance  of  a  poor 
yield. 

Germinating  Test. — A 
very  simple  apparatus  for 
testing  the  germinating  power 
of  seeds  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows :  Place  upon  a  plate  two 
pieces  of  clean,  rather  heavy 
cloth,  cotton  flannel  for  in- 
stance, which  have  been 
dipped  in  water  and  squeezed 
until  only  moderately  wet. 
the  two  layers  of  cloth,  put 


FIG.  73.  —  Seed  Tester. 

Place  the  seeds  between 
another  plate  over  the 
whole  and  keep  it  in  a  temperature  of  from  65  to  70  de- 
grees. The  percentage  of  germination  may  be  found 
by  dividing  the  number  of  seeds  that  sprout  by  the  num- 
ber placed  in  the  tester. 

As  it  takes  only  about  a  dozen  ears  of  corn  to  plant 
an  acre,  and  a  test  of  each  ear  may  be  made  by  selecting 
a  few  kernels  from  different  parts  of  the  ear,  it  is  com- 
paratively easy  to  test  all  corn  before  planting. 

A  tester  for  this  purpose  may  be  made  by  filling  a  shal- 
low box  with  sawdust,  sand,  or  soil.  This  is  kept  moist 
and  covered  with  a  piece  of  cloth,  preferably  flannel, 
which  should  be  rung  out  of  water  and  kept  moist.  In 
making  such  test,  it  is  advisable  to  devise  some  means 
of  marking  the  kernels  from  the  different  ears  to  corre- 
spond with  numbers  placed  on  the  respective  ears  in 
order  that  the  percentage  of  germination  for  each  eai 


152  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

may  be  determined.     The  kernels  in  the  first  row  at 
the  base  of  an  ear  of  corn  and  those  at  the  tip  are  likely 


FIG.  74.  —  Sand  Tray  showing  Corn  Seven  Days  after  Planting. 
From  Circular  96,  Office  of  Experiment  Station,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

to  be  poor  in  germinating  power,  so  they  should  be 
rejected.  (See  page  150.) 

In  general,  it  has  been  found  that  heavy,  young,  and 
large  seeds  are  the  strongest  seeds. 

Impurities  in  Seeds. --The  seeds  of  ordinary  farm 
crops,  except  corn,  are  likely  to  be  mixed  with  dirt, 
seeds  of  weeds  and  other  plants,  chaff,  dead  seed,  and 
imperfect  seed.  The  smaller  the  seed,  the  more  likely 
it  is  to  contain  some  or  all  of  these  impurities  ;  thus  it 
is  more  difficult  for  the  farmer  to  obtain  clean,  pure 
clover  and  grass  seed  than  clean,  pure  wheat  and  oats. 
Cheap  seed  is  likely  to  be  the  most  expensive  in  the 
end  because  the  presence  of  part  or  all  of  these  im- 
purities will  surely  reduce  the  yield. 

Treatment  of  Seeds  before  Planting.  -  -  Seeds  are 
sometimes  soaked  in  water  in  order  to  soften  the  seed 
coats  and  start  germination.  Seeds  of  many  forest 
and  fruit  trees  are  given  a  treatment  known  as  strati- 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  153 

fication  before  being  planted.  Alternate  layers  of 
seeds  and  sand  are  placed  in  a  shallow  box  and  the  box 
is  buried  or  set  in  a  sheltered  place  covered  with  straw 
or  leaves  to  the  depth  of  a  foot.  The  object  of  this 
is  to  soften  the  hard  covering  without  stimulating 
germination.  Many  nuts,  like  those  of  the  walnut, 
hickory,  and  peach,  are  allowed  to  freeze  in  order  to  crack 
their  hard  shells.  Such  seeds  are  sometimes  stratified 
in  boxes  placed  on  the  ground  in  sheltered  places,  or 
they  may  be  merely  placed  in  a  pile  on  the  ground  with 
a  light  covering.  Alternate  freezing  and  thawing  must 
be  prevented  in  stratification  or  the  life  of  the  seed  will 
become  extinct.  When  once  frozen,  the  seeds  should 
remain  so  until  settled  weather.  Upon  being  removed 
from  stratification,  they  must  be  planted  at  once. 

Seed  Planting.  —  GofT  gives  four  general  rules  for 
planting  seed  : 

1.  The  soil  in  which  seeds  are  to  be  planted  should  be 
thoroughly  crumbled,  because  the  seeds  must  have  access 
to  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  order  to  germinate. 

2.  Well-crumbled    soil    should    be    compactly    pressed 
about  the  seeds  so  that  the  seed  case  may  come  in  contact 
with  the  moist  soil  particles  at  many  points  and  thus 
absorb  moisture. 

3.  The  soil  should  be  moist,  but  not  muddy,  because 
excess  of  water  retards  germination  by  restricting  the 
supply  of  oxygen  and  reducing  the  temperature  of  the 
soil. 

4.  Seeds  should  be  planted  no  deeper  than  is  necessary 
to  insure  the  proper  degree  of   moisture,   otherwise   the 
young  plant  may  expend  too  much  energy  in  reaching 
the  surface. 

Propagation  by   Rootstocks,    Stolons,  Suckers,  Bulbs, 


154  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

and  Corms.  --In  many  grasses  branches  often  lie 
along  the  ground  or  under  the  ground,  take  root  at 
their  nodes,  and  send  up  new  plants.  Such  a  branch 
is  called  a  stolon  or  runner  if  it  lies  on  the  ground,  and  a 
rootstock  if  it  lies  under  the  ground.  The  strawberry, 


FIG.  75.  —  Stolons  of  Black  Raspberry. 

black  raspberry,  and  white  clover  are  propagated  by 
means  of  stolons,  and  Kentucky  blue  grass  by  root- 
stocks.  Bermuda  grass  is  propagated  by  rootstocks  and 
stolons.  These  methods  of  reproduction  enable  plants 
to  perpetuate  themselves  after  the  original  plants  from 
seed  are  dead.  The  dense  sod  of  lawns  and  pastures  is 
due  to  propagation  by  stolons  and  rootstocks. 

A  sucker  is  a  branch  which  springs  from  a  parent  stem 
underground  where  it  makes  roots  of  its  own,  then 
farther  on  rises  above  ground  into  a  leafy  stem  and 
becomes  an  independent  plant  whenever  the  connec- 
tion with  the  parent  plant  is  broken.  The  rose,  the 
blackberry,  and  the  red  raspberry  are  propagated  by 
suckers. 

Note-  —  Suckers  appearing  at  the  base  of  the  same  stalk  or  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  of  the  tobacco  plant  are  not  used  for  propagating 
plants. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


155 


Bulbs  have  been  defined  on  page  134.  They  often 
divide  naturally  into  two  or  more  parts  or  may  be  so 
divided  artificially,  each  of  which  parts  may  become 
another  plant.  Bulblets  often  form  around 
the  parent  bulb,  and  these  may  be  used 
to  propagate. 

A  corm  is  like  a  bulb  in  outside  appear- 
ance, but  it  is  solid  throughout  and  made 
up  of  leaves  like  the  onion  or  lily  bulb. 
Small  corms  develop  much  as  do  bulblets, 
and  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner. 
Gladiolus  and  Indian  turnip  are  good  ex- 
amples of  corms. 

Artificial  Propagation.  —  Many  of  the 
methods  of  propagation  just  described  are 
either  natural  or  artificial,  but  the  follow- 
ing are  entirely  artificial,  having  been  de- 
veloped by  man  to  increase  reproduction. 

Cuttings.  —  A  cutting  is  a  detached  por- 
tion of  a  plant  placed  in  soil  or  water  to 
produce  a  new  plant.  The  part  detached 
may  be  a  root,  a  stem,  or  even  a  leaf, 
but  the  chances  of  successful  growth  are 
better  if  the  younger,  matured  growths 
are  used  and  the  part  contains  one  or 
more  buds. 

One  end  of  the  cutting  of  a  stem  is  usu- 
ally placed  in  a  box  of  sand,  in  the  soil,  or 
in  water,  and  if  the  proper  amount  of  heat 
and  moisture  be  supplied,  roots  will  first  be  developed 
and  then  the  slip  will  put  forth  new  branches,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruit.  Root  cuttings  are  generally  buried 
in  the  sand  or  the  soil,  where,  if  healthy,  they  will 


FIG.  76.  —  Cut- 
tings. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


send  up  a  stem  and  in  time  will  become  a  new  plant 
with  the  characteristics  of  the  parent  plant. 

Nearly  all  plants  can  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  but 
such  propagation  is  not  practicable  in  all  cases.     Cur- 


FIG.  77. — Rooted  Cuttings. 

rants  and  grapes  are  commonly  increased  in  this  way, 
as  are  willows  and  poplars. 

Cuttings  may  be  made  from  plants  in  the  autumn  and 
stored  during  the  winter  if  kept  in  a  place  sufficiently 
moist  to  prevent  the  plant's  losing  water  by  evapora- 
tion. Damp  sawdust  or  sand  will  usually  accomplish 
this. 

Note-  —  As  frequent  changes  of  temperature  are  unfavorable  to  the 
development  of  cuttings,  nurserymen  have  devised  what  is  known  as  a 
cold  frame  to  confine  the  heat  of  the  ground  or  shut  out  the  heat  of  the 
sun  when  necessary.  This  consists  of  a  bottomless  box,  higher  on 
one  side  than  on  the  other,  and  covered  with  glass  or  muslin  painted 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


157 


with  linseed  oil  to  render  it  waterproof.      The  frame  is  placed  so  as  to 

have  a  south  slope.      Occasionally  the  sun's  rays  are  so    hot  that  a 

covering  must  be  thrown 

over  the  glass  if  glass  is 

used,   but  if  muslin  or 

paper  is  used,  none  is 

necessary.      The  frame 

must  also  be  additionally 

protected     in     freezing 

weather. 

A  hotbed  is  like  the 
cold  frame  except  that 
it  has  heat  beneath  it, 
this  heat  being  produced 
by  the  fermentation  of 
manure,  leaves,  or  tan 
bark  used  as  a  founda- 
tion. This  foundation 
may  be  put  into  a  pit 
two  or  two  and  one 
half  feet  deep  dug  in 


FIG.  78.  —  Cold  Frames, 
the  ground  or  may  be  placed  on  top  of  the  ground.     The  cuttings 


FIG.  7g.  —  Section  of  a  Hotbed. 

require  a  temperature  of  about  90   degrees,    and  as  the  fermentation 
sometimes  produces   a  much  greater   degree    of  heat  than    this,    care 


158  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

must  be  taken  to  cool  off  the  hotbed,  in  order  that  the  slips  may  not 
be  destroyed. 

Ringing.  —  Sometimes  cuttings  set  out  in  the  ordi- 
nary way  are  slow  in  forming  roots.  If  it  is  known  that 
any  species  is  thus  slow,  a  good  remedy  is  to  ring  the 
branches  from  which  cuttings  are  to  be  made ;  that  is, 
make  a  slight  groove  around  the  stem  just  below  a 
node,  in  July  or  August.  This  will  induce  the  storage 
of  food  above  the  groove  and  the  formation  of  a  callus 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  ring.  In  the  fall  the  cutting 
should  be  made  just  below  the  ring,  and  the  slip  set 
out  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Root  Cuttings.  —  Short  cuttings,  from  one  to  three 
inches,  may  be  made  successfully  from  the  roots  of  some 
hardy  plants,  like  red  raspberry,  plum,  and  blackberry, 
if  made  in  autumn  and  stored  in  boxes  with  moist  sand. 
In  general  they  thrive  better  if  kept  in  a  cool  place,  but 
sometimes  they  need  a  little  higher  temperature  towards 
spring  to  induce  the  formation  of  roots  and  buds.  They 
require  very  shallow  planting,  from  one  half  to  three 
quarters  of  an  inch,  in  finely  crumbled  soil.  Sometimes 
they  need  shading  and  watering  during  early  growth, 
that  is,  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  dry. 

Layering.  —  By  layering  is  meant  the  bringing  of  a 
branch  into  contact  with  the  soil,  covering  it  slightly, 
thus  inducing  it  to  form  roots  and  shoots  which  con- 
stitute an  independent  plant,  the  branch  meanwhile 
remaining  connected  with  the  parent  plant.  This 
method  of  propagation  is  often  used  with  woody  plants 
which  do  not  root  readily  from  cuttings.  Grape 
vines  may  be  stretched  along  the  ground  and  buried  in 
a  shallow  trench  or  may  simply  be  covered  at  certain 
intervals  :  in  either  case  roots  will  be  sent  down  and 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  159 

branches   thrown    up    at    various    points,   several    new 

plants  being  thus  formed  when  the  vine  between  is  cut. 

Plants  which  send  up  a  large  number  of  stems  from 

a  single  root  may  be  layered  by  filling  up  the  soil  in  a 


FIG.  80.  —  A  Rooted  Layer. 

mound  around  the  bases  of  the  stems.  New  roots 
are  thus  sent  out  by  each  stem,  and  when  fully  devel- 
oped, the  parent  plant  may  be  separated  into  several 
new  plants. 

Grafting  consists  in  placing  in  close  contact  the  cam- 
bium layer  of  a  severed  portion  of  one  plant  and  the 
cambium  layer  of  the  root  or  stem  of  another  plant. 
The  portion  cut  from  one  plant  for  grafting  to  another 
plant  is  called  a  scion. 

Time  for  Cutting  Scions.  —  Scions  of  fruit  trees  are 
cut  just  after  the  fall  of  the  leaves  in  autumn.  They 
are  then  made  into  bundles  and  buried  in  moist  sand, 
and  kept  in  a  temperature  that  is  above  freezing  point, 
but  below  growing  point.  Sometimes  good  results 
are  obtained  by  cutting  the  scions  in  the  spring  and 
grafting  them  at  once,  that  is,  if  cleft  grafting  is  to  be 
employed. 

What  Grafting  will  Accomplish.  —  While  it  is  true 
that  the  scion  will  unite  with  another  plant,  the  stock, 
it  must  not  be  thought  that  the  graft  loses  its  charac- 


160  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

teristics  by  this  union.  If  a  Northern  Spy  scion  is 
grafted  on  the  stem  of  a  Jonathan  apple  tree,  the 
branches  that  grow  from  it  will  always  bear  Northern 
Spy  apples,  although  the  nourishment  comes  through 
the  Jonathan  roots  and  stem,  and  the  branches  of  the 
stock  will  continue  to  bear  Jonathan  apples. 

It  is  thus  apparent  that  one  of  the  things  grafting 
will  accomplish  is  to  make  a  plant  of  inferior  variety 
bear  fruit  of  a  superior  variety. 

Another  useful  result  of  the  process  is  to  multiply 
plants  that  do  not  multiply  well  from  seed,  for  example, 
our  common  fruits.  Trees  may  be  made  smaller  by 
grafting  from  a  smaller  variety. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  seedlings  take  many 
years  to  come  to  the  flowering  and  fruiting  stage.  If  it 
is  desired  to  improve  the  variety  of  any  certain  fruit, 
grafting  on  a  seedling  grown  for  this  purpose  will 
hasten  the  formation  of  flower  and  fruit. 

The  symmetry  of  a  tree  that  has  broken  branches 
may  be  restored,  and  defective  branches  be  replaced 
by  grafting. 

Some  fruit  trees  are  liable  to  be  injured  in  the  root 
or  trunk  by  special  insects  which  do  not  infest  other 
fruit  trees.  By  grafting,  for  instance,  a  peach  scion 
on  a  plum  stock,  peaches  may  be  grown  without  injury 
from  the  insect  that  infests  peach  trees. 

To  summarize,  grafting  makes  it  possible : 

1.  To  change   the  variety  of   a   plant,   substituting 
a  desirable  plant  for  an  undesirable ; 

2.  To  hasten  the  fruiting  of  seedlings ; 

3.  To   multiply    plants    that    do    not    multiply   well 
from  seeds ; 

4.  To  render  defective  trees  symmetrical; 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


161 


5.  To  save  injured  trees; 

6.  To  change  the  size  of  trees ; 

7.  To  avoid  injury  and  loss  from  insects  which  es- 
pecially infest  some  trees. 

Cleft   Grafting.  -  -  This    method    is    adapted   only   to 
large  trees  of  which  it  is  desired  to  change  the  variety. 


Scions  in  the  cleft 


i 
Scion 


Cleft  graft 
complete 


Position  of  the  scions ;  C,  cam- 
bium layer 

FIG.  81.  —  Cleft  Grafting. 


A  branch  of  the  stock  to  be  grafted  from  one  to  one  and 
one  half  inches  in  diameter  is  sawed  off,  care  being  taken 
not  to  loosen  the  bark  of  the  stub,  which  is  then  split 
with  a  chisel  or  grafting  tool.  The  opening  is  then 
spread  with  a  wedge  and  the  scions  inserted.  These 
scions  should  be  new  growths  of  the  previous  season, 


M.  &  H.  AG.  —  II 


162 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


having  two  or  three  buds.  The  lower  end  of  the  scion 
must  be  wedge-shaped,  with  the  outer  edge  thicker. 
This  last  is  important,  because  if  the  inner  edge  were 
thicker,  the  outer  edge,  where  the  living  cambium  is, 
would  not  touch  the  cambium  layer  of  the  stock,  and  the 
scion  would  die.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these 
two  living  layers  must  be  in  close  contact  or  no  union 
will  take  place. 

All  cut  surfaces  should  be  covered  with  grafting  wax, 
which  is  made  as  follows  :  Melt  and  pour  into  water 
four  parts  of  resin,  two  of  beeswax,  and  one  of  tallow; 

as  the  mixture 
cools,  work  it  with 
the  hands  until  it 
is  of  a  yellowish 
color.  Make  it  into 
rolls  and  wrap  them 
with  waxed  paper 
to  prevent  them 
from  sticking  to- 


gether. 

Whip  Grafting.  - 

This  method  is 
much  used  in  graft- 
ing on  stems  when 
the  scion  and  stock 
are  about  the  same 
size.  In  this  case 
both  are  cut  with 
a  slanting  surface, 
from  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  to  an  inch  long.  The  stock  has  a  slit,  or 
tongue,  made  in  it  down  lengthwise  from  the  cut,  and 


FIG.  82.  —  Whip  Grafting. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  163 

the  scion  has  a  smaller  one.  The  two  are  then  pressed 
together,  the  tongue  of  the  scion  fitting  into  the  slit  of 
the  stock,  and  the  two  tied  tightly  together  with  waxed 
cord,  cloth,  or  paper. 

Root  grafting  by  this  method  can  be  done  indoors 
in  winter  and  is  therefore  an  economical  method  for 
the  farmer.  The  stocks  are  usually  seedlings  of  one 
or  two  years'  growth,  dug  in  autumn  and  stored  as 
recommended  for  scions  on  page  159.  When  ready 
for  grafting,  the  roots  are  washed  and  pieces  cut  from 
two  to  six  inches  long,  stock  and  scion  being  about  the 
same  length.  After  grafting  as  described  above,  the 
grafts  are  packed  away  in  moss,  sawdust,  or  sand 
in  a  cool  cellar,  about  40°  F.,  and  planted  in  the 
spring. 

Notes.  —  Grafting  cord  is  made  by  soaking  balls  of  common 
wrapping  twine  in  melted  grafting  wax. 

Grafting  paper  is  made  by  painting  thin  wrapping  paper  with  melted 
grafting  wax.  Spread  the  paper  on  a  heated  board  and  apply  the  wax 
melted  sufficiently  to  spread  easily.  Thin  muslin  or  calico  is  often 
used  instead  of  paper. 

Budding. -- This  method  of  plant  propagation  is 
increasing  in  favor  because  of  its  economy,  inasmuch 
as  only  one  bud  is  needed  for  a  scion,  whereas  in  cleft 
or  whip  grafting  there  must  be  two  or  three  to  insure 
success.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  expensive  in 
stocks  because  a  seedling  is  required  for  each  scion, 
while  in  root  grafting  two  or  three  can  be  made  from 
one  seedling. 

The  bud  is  taken  from  the  current  season's  active 
growth,  that  is,  from  July  to  September.  In  cutting 
the  bud  it  is  best  to  remove  with  it  a  portion  of  the 


164 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


bark  to  serve  as  a  handle  in  pushing  the  scion  into  the 

stock.  The  stock 
should  have  a  stem 
about  three  eighths 
of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, which  means 
two  seasons'  growth 
of  the  apple  or  pear 
and  one  of  the 
peach;  a  T-shaped 
cut  is  made  in  the 
cambium  layer  of 
the  stock,  the  bark 
loosened  a  little, 
and  then  the  bud 
is  inserted  and  tied 
firmly  in  place 
above  and  below 
the  bud.  Care 
must  be  taken  that 
the  bud  is  fresh, 
moist,  and  the 
growing  point  un- 
injured. 

The      ligature 
binding  it  in  place 


FIG.  83.  —  Steps  in  Budding. 


must  be 
as  soon 
union  is 


removed 
as    the 
accom- 


3,  twig  having  suitable  buds  to  use;  b,  method  of  cutting 

off  the  bud;  c,  how  the  bark  is  cut;  d,  how  the  bark  ...  , 

is  opened;    e,  inserting  the  bud;/,  the  bud  in  place;  pHslied,      in       about 

g,  the  bud  properly  wrapped.     (Cummings.)  .  .  j 

ten  days,  in  order 

that  the  tree  shall  not  be  girdled  by  it.     (See  page  144.) 
Just  as  soon  as  the  bud    begins  to  grow,  the    top  of 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  165 

the  stock  must  be  cut  off  in  order  to  stimulate  the 
growth  of  the  bud. 

Ring  budding  is  sometimes  performed  in  the  spring 
on  thick-barked  trees,  like  the  hickory.  This  consists 
in  removing  a  narrow  strip  of  bark  nearly  around  the 
stock  and  inserting  therein  a  strip  of  the  same  size 
containing  a  bud,  then  binding  it  in  place. 

Plant  Breeding.  —  Creative  force  manifests  itself 
in  an  infinite  variety  of  forms  and  qualities,  no  two 
plants,  no  two  animals  being  exactly  alike,  either  in 
appearance  or  in  characteristics.  This  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  individual  plants  in  a  field,  for  instance, 
is  responsible  for  a  low  yield  of  inferior  quality,  for  if 
all  of  the  plants  in  the  field  were  uniformly  of  the  same 
type  as  the  best  plants,  the  yield  and  value  of  the  crop 
would  be  greatly  increased  and  the  expense  of  handling 
the  crop  would  be  reduced,  thus  doubly  adding  to  the 
grower's  profits. 

Problems  of  Plant  Breeding.  —  One  of  the  most 
important  and  most  difficult  problems  the  farmer  has 
to  solve  is  how  to  breed  plants  so  as  to  bring  up  the 
average  of  the  crop  to  that  of  the  best  individual  plants. 
In  the  case  of  those  plants  which  are  partly  or  wholly 
self-fertilized,  that  is,  fertilized  by  pollen  from  the 
same  flower  or  plant,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and 
tobacco,  the  problem  is  not  so  difficult  to  solve  as  with 
plants  that  depend  upon  cross-fertilization,  such  as 
corn  and  hemp. 

The  problem  presents  three  phases  : 

1.  How  can    variations    from    the    parent    type    be 
produced  ? 

2.  How  can  selections  of  the  best  types  be  made  ? 

3.  How  can  the  new  types   be   made   to   reproduce 


i66 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


their  characteristics  and  be  kept  from  reverting  to  the 
inferior,  original  type  ? 


FIG.  84. — Plant-breeding  Plots  (Minnesota  Experiment  Station). 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  plant  breeder  is  really  trying 
to  do  two  directly  opposite  things :  first,  to  induce 
variation  and  thus  improve  his  variety ;  second,  to 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  167 

induce  uniformity  after  he  has  secured  the  variation 
he  wishes,  that  is,  he  is  trying  to  fix  the  variation. 
Variation  can  in  some  cases  be  induced : 

1.  By  culture.     Change  of  food  and  climate  will  work 
changes  from  the  parent  plant  little  short  of  marvelous. 

2.  By  growing  seedlings.     This  method  is  used  with 
plants  which  have  usually  been  propagated  by  budding, 
grafting,  or  division   (like  dahlias).     Characteristics  of 
the  parent  plant  are  more  variable  than  those  of  varieties 
grown  from  seed,  therefore  the   young   seedlings  will 
show  differences.     Desirable  individuals   among  these 
may  be  chosen  for  fixing. 

3.  By  cross-pollination.    (See  page  147.)    This  method 
will  work  changes  from  the  parent  type  nothing  less  than 
wonderful.    Burbank  has  secured  some  marvelous  results 
largely  through   this   method.     The   individual   plants 
produced  from  the  two  parent  plants  are  not  exactly 
like  either,  neither  are  they  like  each  other.     Some  of 
them  resemble  one  parent  in  a  marked  degree  and  some 
of  them  the  other.     It  is  quite  within  the  probabilities 
that  scientific  breeding  by  cross-pollination  will  be  able 
to  produce  individuals  that  have  only  the  best  charac- 
teristics of  each  of  the  parent  plants  and  that  the  seeds 
of  these  individuals  may  be    used    to    perpetuate  the 
variety. 

To  insure  the  best  results,  the  plant  breeder  should 
have  clearly  in  mind  the  characteristics  which  he  desires 
to  secure  in  his  new  variety,  and  then  select  the  two 
parents  with  care. 

A  wise  selection  is  the  plant  breeder's  most  potent 
factor  in  securing  uniformity  and  thus  improving  his 
crops.  This  means  the  rejection  of  many  individuals 
and  the  retention  of  a  few  desirable  ones  from  which 


1 68  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

to  breed.  The  planting  of  seed  from  a  large  squash  is 
not  necessarily  making  a  wise  selection  unless  that 
squash  grew  on  a  vine  that  bore  more  than  one  large 
squash.  The  unit  of  selection  should  be  the  parent 
plant,  not  one  individual. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  there  are  two  possible 
ways  to  fix  a  variation : 

1.  By    propagating    the  plant  by  budding  or  graft- 
ing (pages   159-165),  instead  of  from  the  seed.     This 
method  is  practicable  for  trees,  shrubs,  fruits,  potatoes, 
and  many  flowering  plants. 

2.  By  constant  selection  of  seed  toward  the  desired 
type.     This  method  is  more  or  less  practicable  with  the 
grains   and   garden  vegetables.     For  instance,   if  it  is 
desired  to  secure  an  especially  early  variety  of  corn, 
we  must  save  all  seed  from  a  single  plant  that  early 
matured  large,  strong  ears,  and  plant  them  the  following 
spring.     Not  all  the  plants  from  these  seeds  will  mature 
even  as  early  as  the  parent  plant,  but  probably  a  few 
will.     The  seed  from  these  few  should  be  saved  and 
planted  the  next  spring.     Continuing  this  process  for 
several  seasons  will  in  time  fix  a  variety  of  early  corn. 
It  must  not  be  thought  that  the  variety  is  thus  per- 
manently fixed,  for  the  tendency  is  for  such  plants  to 
run  out,   that  is,  lose  their  distinctive  characteristics. 

The  only  way  to  know  whether  improved  varieties 
will  transmit  their  superior  characteristics  to  the  next 
generation  is  to  make  tests.  If,  for  instance,  va- 
rieties of  corn  have  been  produced  which  have  full, 
strong  ears,  a  few  should  be  planted  from  one  ear  of 
each  variety  and  the  yields  compared.  In  no  other 
way  can  it  be  determined  whether  selected  individuals 
will  reproduce  their  desirable  characteristics. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  169 

Selecting  and  testing  to  see  which  plants  are  best 
able  to  transmit  their  good  qualities  have  done  much 
to  improve  our  farm  crops,  the  most  notable  improve- 
ment being  in  the  sugar  beet,  corn,  barley,  tobacco, 
apple,  and  potato.  The  same  methods  applied  to 
wheat,  oats,  and  grasses  will  produce  like  beneficial 
results. 

One  general  rule  must  be  followed  in  all  plant  breed- 
ings :  Choose  the  best,  then  test  the  yielding  and  trans- 
mitting power. 

Note-  • —  Experiment  stations  do  systematic  work  in  plant  breed- 
ing, and  continue  to  establish  plants  of  certain  desirable  characteristics 
through  continuous  selection  year  after  year.  To  facilitate  the  work 
of  breeding  small  grains,  the  plantings  are  made  in  plots  of  ground 
holding  a  definite  number  of  plants.  These  plots  are  called  centgener 
plots.  When  the  grain  is  harvested  from  these  plots,  it  is  often  desira- 
ble to  inclose  each  bundle  with  a  cloth  cap  so  that  none  of  the  grain 
may  be  lost  through  storms,  birds,  or  insects.  These  caps  may  be 
seen  in  the  foreground  of  the  picture  showing  a  part  of  the  plots  of  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station. 

Plant  Families.  -  -  There  is  such  a  great  number  of 
different  kinds  of  plants  that  to  study  each  kind  sepa- 
rately would  take  more  time  than  would  be  possible 
in  the  life  of  any  man.  Botanists  have  noted  certain 
general  characteristics  that  are  common  to  certain 
groups  of  plants.  These  common  characteristics  make 
it  possible  to  divide  the  vegetable  kingdom  into  great 
divisions,  classes,  orders,  families,  genera,  species,  and 
varieties.  By  learning  the  characteristics  of  a  single 
family  or  order,  he  learns  certain  general  things  about 
all  the  plants  that  belong  to  that  family. 

All  vegetable  life  consists  of  four  great  divisions,  - 
the  thallus  plants,  the  moss  plants,  the  fern  plants,  and 


1 7o  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

the  seed  plants.  The  first  three  divisions  include  such 
plants  as  are  represented  by  bacteria,  molds,  mildews, 
rusts,  mushrooms,  yeasts,  mosses,  and  ferns.  Many  of 
the  plants  in  these  divisions  are  of  great  importance  in 
agriculture,  but,  except  mushrooms,  none  of  them  is 
raised  by  the  farmer  as  a  food  crop. 

Seed  plants  include  all  the  great  families  that  goto 
make  the  crops  of  the  farm. 

They  may  be  divided  into  two  subdivisions.  Those 
having  their  ovules  naked,  that  is,  not  inclosed  in  an 
ovary,  are  called  Gymnosperms.  The  pine  family,  in- 
cluding a  large  number  of  the  evergreens,  belongs  here. 

Those  having  their  ovules  inclosed  in  an  ovary  are 
called  Angio sperms.  The  Angiosperms  are  again  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  depending  on  the  number  of 
cotyledons,  or  seed  leaves,  in  the  seed.  Those  Angio- 
sperms having  one  cotyledon  are  called  Monocotyledons 
or  Endogens.  Besides  being  distinguished  by  having 
but  one  cotyledon,  monocotyledons  have  usually  par- 
allel-veined leaves  and  usually  have  parts  of  their 
flowers  in  threes,  never  in  fives.  The  corn  plant  is  a 
good  illustration  of  a  monocotyledon. 

Note.  —  An  earlier  classification  of  plants  makes  two  great  divisions: 

f  The  algze  and  fungi  and  their  allies. 
I.     Cryptogams  ]  The  liverworts  and  mosses. 

[  The  ferns,  horsetails,  and  club  mosses. 
II.    Phanerogams    The  seed  plants. 

Angiosperms  having  two  cotyledons  in  the  seed  are 
called  Dicotyledons  or  Exogens.  They  usually  have 
netted-veined  leaves,  and  the  parts  of  their  flowers  in 
fives.  Each  of  these  subclasses  is  divided  into  numerous 
families  or  orders,  about  one  hundred  of  which  are 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


171 


usually  described  by  botanists.  Most  of  the  plants 
of  special  interest  to  farmers  may  be  included  in  eight 
families  whose  characteristics  may  be  very  easily  learned. 
The  general  classification  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  as 
far  as  given,  is  graphically  represented  below : 


I.  Thallophytes.j  Algae 
or  thallus  plants  (Fungi 

II.  Bryophytes.J  Liverworts 
or  moss  plants      j  Mosses 

III.  Pterido-  [  Ferns 
phytes,    or    fern  j  Horsetails 
plants  ( Club  mosses 


Vegetable 

Kingdom 

Subdivision         I,                                                _ 

r  amines 

Gymnosperms, 

Class  i,  Monocot- 

or   seed    plants 

yledons  or  En- 

i.  Gramineae, 

with          naked 

dogens 

grasses  and  cereals 

• 

ovules,   such  as 

IV.   Spermato- 

pines,     spruces, 

phytes,   or    seed 

and  many  other 

2.  Cruciferae 

plants 

evergreens 

3.  Rosaceae 

Class  2,  Dicotyle- 

4. Leguminosas 

Subdivision       II, 

dons    or    Exo- 

5.  Umbelliferae 

Angiosperms,  or 

gens 

6.  Solanaceae 

seed  plants  with 

7.  Compositae 

inclosed  ovules 

8.  Cucurbitaceas 

Gramineae,  or  Grass  Family.  --This  is  a  very  large 
family,  the  only  one  in  the  endogenous  class  that  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  farmer.  It  includes  not  only 
all  the  grasses,  but  also  all  the  cereals,  which  make  up 
such  a  large  part  of  the  farm  crops.  Sorghum,  broom 
corn,  Kaffir  corn,  and  the  millets  are  also  included  in 
this  family. 

The  June  grass,  or  Kentucky  blue  grass  (Fig.  85), 
may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  family.  Its  roots  are 
fibrous  and  spreading.  Its  stem,  called  a  culm,  is 
hollow,  jointed,  and  enlarged  at  the  joints.  The  leaves 


172 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


are  parallel-veined  and  inclose  the  lower  part  of  the 
stem,  as  in  heath.  The  .flowers  are  on  the  end  of 

the     stem     in     a 
A\A  cluster,   whose 

branches  are 
branched  again. 
The  flowers  may 
be  contracted  in- 
to a  long  head,  as 
in  timothy;  such 
a  form  is  called 
a  spike.  The 
flowers  are  col- 
lected into  little 
clusters  called 
spikelets.  With  a 
small  magnifying 
glass  the  spike  may 
be  easily  analyzed. 
At  the  base  are  two 
chaff-like  bracts, 
called  glumes,  ris- 
ing above  which 

r  n 

are   four    flowers. 

jr  i  f      .1 

J-I     Caen     OI      tnCSC 

flowers  is  observed 

carefully,  it  will  be  seen  to  consist  of  two  chaffy  bract- 
lets,  called  pales,  one  a  little  above  the  other  (Fig.  85, 
2),  then  three  stamens,  and  lastly  an  ovary  with  two 
feathery  stigmas  (Fig.  85,  3).  The  ovary  ripens  into 
a  one-seeded  grain. 

These  parts  may  be  seen  more  distinctly  in  the  oat 
plant.     Each  member  of  the  great  grass  family  differs 


FIG.  85.  —  June  Grass. 

I,  spikelet  with  two  glumes  and  four  flowers;  2,  a  single 
flower;  3,  ovary  and  feathery  stigmas;  4,  ripe  kernel  in- 
closed in  the  two  pales. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


from  every  other  member  in  one  or  more  ways,  but  they 
agree  generally  in  the  following  characteristics  : 

(a)  Plants  endogenous  with  fibrous  roots ; 

(b)  Stems  hollow  or  pithy  between  the  solid  joints; 

(c)  Leaves  alternate ; 

(d)  Flowers  in  spike- 
lets  with  alternate 
glumes  and  pales ; 

(<?)  Ovary  with  two 
and  sometimes  three 
plumelike  stigmas  and 
one  ovule ; 

(/)  Stamens  usually 
three. 

Cruciferae,  or  Mus- 
tard Family.  --This 
family  is  represented 
by  some  of  our  most 
important  garden  veg- 
etables, including  the 
cabbage,  turnip,  ru- 
tabaga, radish,  and 
horse-radish.  It  in- 
cludes also  water  cress,  mustard,  peppergrass,  shepherd's 
purse,  and  French  weed. 

All  the  flowers  of  the  plants  in  this  family  are  arranged 
along  the  stem,  as  in  the  currant.  This  form  is  called 
a  raceme.  The  lower  flowers  are  the  older  and  often 
develop  ripened  fruit  while  upper  nodes  are  lengthening 
and  developing  new  flowers.  The  seeds  are  formed 
in  a  two-celled  pod,  called  a  silicle  when  short,  and  a 
silique  when  long,  as  in  the  mustard. 

The   flowers   have   four   sepals    and   four   petals    ar- 


FIG.  86.  —The  Wild  Mustard. 

An  individual  flower  and  a  seed  pod  appear  at  the 
left,  and  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner  is  shown 
a  flower. 


174  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

ranged    so  as  to  form  a  cross,  hence  the  name  cruci- 
ferce. 

The  following  characteristics  are  common  to  all  mem- 
bers of  the  family : 

(a)  The  flowers  arranged  in  racemes,  with  the  lower 
flowers  the  older ; 

(b)  Flowers  cruciform ; 

(c)  Stamens  six,  four  long  and  two  short; 

(d)  Pod,  two-celled; 

(e)  Fruit  a  silicle  or  a  silique. 

Rosacese,  or  Rose  Family.  -  -  This  important  family 
has  among  its  plants  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  Here 
are  found  the  pear  tree,  the  apple  tree,  and  the  crab- 
apple.  Berries  are  represented  by  the  blackberry, 
raspberry,  thimbleberry,  shadberry,  and  strawberry. 
The  stone  fruits  include  the  peach,  the  plum,  and  the 
cherry, 

The  plants  of  this  family  have  regular  flowers  with 
calyx  and  corolla  each  of  five  parts.  The  stamens, 
which  are  numerous  and  distinct,  arise  from  the  calyx. 
The  flowers  may  have  one  or  many  pistils.  They  may 
be  distinct,  or  they  may  be  united  and  combined  with 
the  calyx,  as  they  are  in  the  apple. 

The  following  are  the  common  characteristics  : 

(a)  Flowers  regular,  that  is,  one  sepal  like  another 
on    same    flower    and    all    petals    alike    on    the    same 
flower; 

(b)  Corolla  in  five  parts ; 

(c)  Stamens  numerous  and  inserted  on  the  calyx. 
Leguminosae,  or  Pea  Family.  --The  common  garden 

pea  is  a  characteristic  member  of  this  large  and  impor- 
tant order.  Its  importance  is  due  not  only  to- the  plants 
that  furnish  foods  rich  in  nitrogen,  but  also  to  the  fact 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


175 


that  all  the  legumes  are  able  through  the  bacteria  in 
the  tubercles  on  the  roots  to  fix  free  nitrogen,  that  is, 
to  make  a  nitrate  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  air.  The  most 
familiar  of  the  legumes  are  beans,  peas,  lentils,  peanuts, 


FIG.  87.  —  Plum  and  Apple. 

a,  plum  blossoms ;  b,  section  of  flower ;  c,  diagram  of  flower ;  d ,  plum ;  e,  section  of  apple 
blossom;  /,  section  of  apple. 

clovers,    alfalfa,    and    the    locust    tree.     Some    not    so 
familiar    are    gum    arabic,    tolu,     tragacanth,     indigo. 


176 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


licorice,    senna,    logwood,    Brazilwood,    and    sensitive 
plant. 

The  corolla  of  a  few  of  this  family  is  regular,  but  all  the 
plants  that  are  valuable  for  food  have  papil  ionaceous 


FIG.  88.  —  Garden  Pea. 

I,  the  corolla  displayed;  2,  the  diadelphous  stamens;  3,  the  ovary  dissected,  and  the  pecul- 
iar style  and  stigma. 

(butterfly-shaped)  corollas  similar  to  that  of  the  pea. 
They  have  five  irregular  petals.     The  upper,  or  odd.  petal 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


177 


is  larger  than  the  others,  usually  turned  backward  or 
spreading;  the  two  side  petals,  called  the  wings,  are  out- 
side of  the  two  lower  petals,  which  are  often  joined  to  form 
a  keel.  There  are  ten  stamens,  nine  of  which  are  united 


FIG.  89.  —  Wild  Parsnip. 

a,  umbel;  b,  leaf;  c,  flower;  d,  section  of  fruit;  e,  petals;  /,  g,  stamens;  h,  pistil;  i,  dia- 
gram of  flower. 

by  their  filaments,  while  the  tenth  is  separate  and  free. 
This  condition  is  called  diadelphous,  that  is,  in  two  sets. 
M.  &  H.  AG.  — 12 


178  AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 

There  is  a  simple  free  pistil  which  becomes  a  legume, 
or  pod. 

The  characteristics  of  this  family  may  be  summarized 
as  follows : 

1.  Papillionaceous  corolla; 

2.  Ten  diadelphous  stamens; 

3.  One  simple  pistil  becoming  a  legume  or  pod. 
Umbellif  erae,    or    Parsley    Family.  —  Many    of    the 

common  garden  plants  and  some  common  weeds  are 
representatives  of  this  large  family.  The  carrot,  pars- 
nip, celery,  parsley,  and  chervil  are  used  for  food. 
Anise,  caraway,  coriander,  dill,  and  cummin  furnish 
odors  and  flavors. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  this  family  is,  as  its  name 
suggests,  the  collection  of  its  flowers  into  an  umbel ; 
that  is,  the  flowers  are  on  the  ends  of  the  short  stems, 
or  pedicels,  which  spread  out  from  the  end  of  the  main 
stem  like  the  rays  of  an  umbrella. 

Umbel-bearing  plants  have  : 

1.  Hollow  stems; 

2.  Flowers  arranged  in  umbels; 

3.  Flowers  in  fives  as  to  parts  of  corolla,  calyx,  and 
number  of  stamens. 

4.  Pistil  two-ovuled  and  two-styled. 

Solanaceae,  or  Nightshade  Family.  —  Although  the 
members  of  this  family  have  certain  characteristics 
that  bring  them  together  in  one  family,  the  members 
differ  so  radically  in  many  other  ways  that  it  is  difficult 
to  think  of  them  as  belonging  together.  From  ordinary 
appearance  one  would  scarcely  think  that  there  was 
a  very  close  relationship  between  the  sandbur  and  the 
potato,  or  between  the  tobacco  plant  and  the  tomato, 
yet  their  likenesses  group  them  in  this  family.  Here 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY 


179 


also  belong  the  jimson  weed,  the  g-ound  cherry,  and 
the  henbane.  The  foliage  is  rank-scented,  the  fruits 
are  mostly  narcotics,  often  very  poisonous,  though 
some  are  edible. 

The  general  characteristics  of  this  family  are  : 

i.  Flowers  regular,  five-parted,  corolla  wheel-shaped  ; 


FIG.  90. — Potato  Plant. 

i,  flowers;  b,  flower;  c,  section;  d,  e,  anther;  /,  section  of  ovary;  g,  pistil;  h,  diagram  of 

flower. 

2.  Five  equal  stamens  inserted  on  the  calyx; 

3.  Style  and  stigma  single,  the    fruit    a    two-celled, 
many-seeded  capsule  or  berry. 

Compositae,    or    Aster    Family.  —  About    one  tenth 


i8o 


AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY 


of  the  flowering  plants  of  the  world  are  included  in  this 
great  family.  Conspicuous  among  them  are  the  asters, 
the  goldenrods,  the  sunflowers,  the  dandelions,  and  the 
thistles.  The  most  useful  plants  of  this  family  are  the 
lettuce,  salsify,  chicory,  saffron,  and  the  plant  the  pul- 
verized heads  of  which  furnish  the  Persian  insect  powder. 


FIG.  gi.  —  Dandelion. 

I,  a  single  flower;  2,  stamens;  3,  the  receptacle  and  involucre;  4,  a  fruit;  5,  a  fruit  with 

its  pappus. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOTANY  181 

The  chief  characteristics  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Flowers  collected  into  a  head; 

2.  Corolla  of  five  united  petals  (gamopetalous) ; 

3.  Five  stamens  united  by  their  anthers  into  a  tube; 

4.  Two  stigmas,  one  style,  one-ovuled  ovary. 

Cucurbitaceae,  or  Gourd  Family.  -  -  This  family  in- 
cludes the  squash,  the  pumpkin,  the  cucumber,  the 
muskmelon,  the  watermelon,  the  citron,  and  the  gourd. 

The  plants  are  mostly  herbs  with  tendrils,  the  flowers 
distinguished  by  having  stamens  and  pistils  in  separate 
flowers.  These  may  be  on  the  same  plant  (monoecious), 
or  the  pistillate  flowers  may  be  on  one  plant  and  the 
staminate  on  another  plant  (dioecious). 

Besides  the  above  characteristics,  the  gourd  family 
has  the  following  : 

1.  Five  stamens  united  by  their  anthers; 

2.  Two  or  three  stigmas,  seeds  large,  usually  flat. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

THE  forms  of  vegetation  that  most  interest  the  agri- 
culturist have  economic  value,  that  is,  they  minister 
to  the  needs  of  mankind  by  furnishing  food,  directly 
or  indirectly,  clothing,  shelter,  or  medicine.  These 
economic  plants  may  be  classified  upon  different  bases. 
A  convenient  classification  is  the  following :  cereals ; 
sugar  plants;  oil  plants;  fiber  plants;  stimulants, 
medicinal  and  aromatic  plants ;  grasses ;  legumes ; 
vegetables;  fruits;  tubers;  roots. 

CEREALS 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  food  for  the  human 
race  comes  from  the  grain-bearing  plants,  or  cereals, 
so-called  from  Ceres,  the  name  the  Romans  gave  the 
goddess  of  the  harvest.  The  cereals  commonly  grown 
are  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  rye,  rice,  and  buckwheat. 
All  these  plants,  excepting  corn  and  buckwheat,  have 
certain  similar  characteristics  of  growth,  —  their  roots 
are  fibrous,  their  stems  are  hollow  and  jointed,  and 
their  leaves  are  long  and  narrow,  —  characteristics 
which  they  possess  in  common  with  other  grasses. 

It  is  also  characteristic  of  these  cereals  to  thrive 
best  from  shallow  planting,  one  inch  or  less  below  the 
surface.  A  peculiarity  of  their  root  and  stem  forma- 

182 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  183 

tion  is  that  the  first  section  of  the  stem  forms  just  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  fibrous  roots  grow 
from  the  same  point.  The  stem  grows  above  the  ground 
and  the  leaves  open  in  the  air  and  light,  whereupon 
other  roots  form  at  the  first  joint  of  the  stem,  very  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  These  increase  in  number 
and  spread  very  rapidly.  When  the  plant  has  enough 
of  these  to  hold  it  firmly  in  place,  'the  section  of  the 
stem  below  them  and  also  the  first  roots  formed  die 
and  by  their  decay  add  humus  to  the  soil.  If  a  plant 
of  this  family  is  vigorous,  it  will,  in  addition  to  the 
secondary  roots  sent  out,  also  develop  a  number  of 
stems  at  the  first  joint,  thus  making  a  multiple  plant 
with  increased  seed-bearing  capacity.  This  latter 
process  is  called  stooling.  Too  deep  planting  hinders 
stooling.  Grain  in  rich,  moist  soil,  if  not  too  thickly 
sown,  will  in  cool  weather  stool  rapidly  and  thus  bring 
a  large  yield  from  few  seeds. 

Wheat  is  the  most  important  food  of  the  human 
race,  not  that  it  is  the  most  nutritious,  for  it  is  not,  but 
it  is  sufficiently  so  to  make  it,  with  its  palatable  qual- 
ity, and  the  great  variety  of  forms  it  can  be  made  to 
assume,  the  most  desirable  of  the  food  stuffs.  Waldo 
Brown  says :  "  In  many  respects  wheat  seems  to  be 
the  most  important  crop  the  farmers  grow.  Its 
importance  is  due  to  the  following  facts  : 

"  1st.  It  is  a  crop  which  always  commands  the  cash, 
and  is  always  in  demand.  In  speaking  of  the  value  of 
other  crops  or  of  investments,  it  is  a  common  expres- 
sion with  farmers  that '  it  is  as  good  as  old  wheat  in  the 
mill.' 

"  2d.  It  divides  the  work  so  that  a  single  team  can 
do  much  more  on  a  farm  where  wheat  and  corn  are 


1 84  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

grown  in  about  equal  proportions  than  where  corn  is 
the  sole  or  principal  crop. 

"  3d.  It  can  be  successfully  grown  on  rolling  lands, 
which,  if  continuously  cultivated  in  corn,  would  soon 
be  ruined  by  washing. 

"  4th.  It  gives  an  opportunity  to  rotate  with  clover 
which,  while  occupying  the  land,  furnishes  plant  food 
for  successive  crops,  and  is  thus  almost  an  essential  in 
any  good  rotation. 

"  5th.  It  can  be  easily  stored.  There  is  little  risk 
of  injury  from  dampness,  and  almost  no  loss  from 
shrinkage. 

"6th.  It  furnishes  the  farmer  a  large  bulk  of  straw, 
which  can  be  utilized  for  food,  bedding,  shelter,  and  as 
an  absorbent  for  liquids  which  would,  without  it,  on 
many  farms  be  wasted. 

"  yth.  As  wheat  is  exported  to  a  large  extent,  and  can 
be  held  for  one  or  more  years  if  desired,  it  is  less  subject 
to  fluctuations  in  price  than  many  other  farm  products, 
and  is  not  so  likely  to  be  depressed  by  an  unusually 
heavy  crop." 

Production  of  Wheat.  —  Europe  produces  annually 
twice  as  much  wheat  as  North  America,  not  because  of 
having  twice  as  much  land  devoted  to  the  culture  of  the 
grain,  but  because  many  European  farmers,  by  better 
cultural  methods  and  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers, 
raise  twice  as  many  bushels  an  acre.  The  average  an- 
nual crop  of  the  world  is  about  three  and  one  half  bil- 
lions of  bushels,  most  of  which  is  eaten  by  the  human 
race,  it  being  too  expensive  to  use  as  food  for  other 
animals.  Canada  and  Argentina  are  opening  up  large 
areas  rapidly  and  increasing  the  wheat  yield  of  North 
and  South  America. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


185 


Kinds  of  Wheat.  -  -  There  are  two  main  classes  of 
wheat  based  on  the  time  of  sowing,  namely,  winter 
wheat  and  spring  wheat.  Two  other  terms  are  used 
to  express  types  of  wheat,  hard  wheat  and  soft  wheat, 
both  winter  and  spring  wheat  having  varieties  of  each 
type.  Then,  again,  there  are  many  varieties  of  each 
class  based  on  color,  awns,  chaff,  and  the  like.  It  is 
difficult  to  determine  with  accuracy  the  different  varie- 
ties as  they  are  growing  in  the  field,  and  it  is  often 
more  difficult  to  determine  the  varieties  by  looking  at 
a  sample  of  the  grain. 

The  heads  of  some  of  the  types  of  wheat  are  illus- 
trated in  Figure  92. 


FIG.  9^.  — Types  of  Wheat. 
a,  emmer;  b,  blue  stem;  c,  macaroni;  d,  fife;  c,  bearded  common. 

As  a  rule,  the  more  humid  the  region,  the  softer  the 
wheat  will  be.  The  vast  prairies  and  rolling  country 
of  Canada  and  the  Dakotas  produce  a  hard  spring 
wheat  that  ranks  with  the  hard  winter  wheat  of  Ne- 


1 86  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

braska  and  Kansas  in  the  production  of  fine  flour,  al- 
though the  soft  winter  wheat  of  the  middle  states  west- 
ward from  New  York,  Ohio,  and  southward  makes 
excellent  pastry  flour. 

Durum,  the  hardest  variety  of  wheat,  is  used  in 
making  macaroni.  This  wheat  has  been  almost  en- 
tirely imported  until  the  past  few  years,  but  the  fact 
that  it  requires  less  rainfall  than  other  varieties  has  led 
to  its  introduction  in  the  western  plains,  especially  in 
Kansas,"  Nebraska,  and  the  Dakotas,  with  favorable 
results. 

Some  of  the  principal  advantages  in  growing  winter 
wheat  are  a  better  distribution  of  farm  work;  generally 
higher  yields,  largely  due  to  the  maturing  of  the  crop 
before  the  extreme  heat  of  midsummer,  which  often 
prevents  full  development;  a  conservation  of  soil 
fertility  by  the  crop  during  the  autumn  and  spring; 
and,  in  some  localities  and  under  certain  conditions, 
an  increase  in  pasturage. 

Note.  —  Winter  sown  wheat  may  be  pastured  during  the  late  fall 
and  winter  without  material  injury  to  the  growth  of  the  plant  in  the 
spring.  In  fact,  it  has  been  thought  that  judicious  pasturing  of  wheat 
helps  to  thicken  the  stand  by  increasing  the  number  of  stems  to  the 
plant. 

Emmer,  sometimes  miscalled  Speltz,  is  grown  to 
some  extent  in  this  country  as  a  stock  food.  The  hull 
of  this  wheat  adheres  to  the  kernel  as  it  does  in  barley. 

Wheat  Sowing.  — -  As  wheat  thrives  best  in  some- 
what solid  soil,  clays  or  clay  loams,  if  well  drained,  will 
yield  the  most  satisfactory  results,  but  the  different 
varieties  of  wheat  demand  varying  conditions,  spring 
wheat  growing  well  on  lighter  soil  than  winter  wheat. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


187 


1 88  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

Experiments  have  shown  that  early  plowing  and  early 
seeding  of  winter  wheat,  preferably  the  first  week  in 
September  in  the  northern  states  and  late  in  Septem- 
ber or  early  in  October  in  the  states  farther  south,  pro- 
duce the  best  yield.  The  ground  for  spring  wheat 
planting  should  be  plowed  the  previous  autumn  and 
the  seed  sown  in  the  spring  as  early  as  possible. 

If  the  crop  rotation  brings  wheat  after  clover  or 
corn,  little  or  no  added  nitrogen  will  be  required,  and 
if  the  preceding  crop  has  been  furnished  lime,  potash, 
and  phosphorus,  no  additional  fertilizer  will  be  needed. 

Preparation  of  Seed  Bed.  --The  practice  as  to  depth 
of  plowing  varies  in  different  localities.  As  wheat  has 
a  shallow  rootage,  it  has  been  thought  necessary  to 
plow  but  four  to  seven  inches  in  depth.  This  allows 
the  roots  to  spread  out  on  the  subsoil  where  they  re- 
ceive the  maximum  amount  of  moisture  and  at  the 
same  time  a  plentiful  supply  of  air  in  the  plowed  sur- 
face. 

Shallow  plowing  has  resulted  in  early  exhaustion 
of  the  topsoil  and  consequent  lessened  yields  of  wheat, 
so  that,  as  usually  practiced,  deep  plowing  stirs  up  the 
soil  to  a  depth  of  six  to  eight  inches  and  has  the  fol- 
lowing advantages  : 

(a)  It  allows  the  soil  to  absorb  a  large  amount  of 
the  rainfall. 

(&)  It  renders  available  for  plant  growth  a  larger 
amount  of  plant  food. 

(c)  It  buries  many  weeds  that  would  otherwise 
spring  up  to  choke  the  wheat. 

Many  who  practice  deep  plowing  use  the  subsurface 
packer  (see  page  95)  to  reestablish  capillarity  between 
the  surface  and  the  subsoil. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS  189 

As  soon  after  plowing  as  practicable  the  surface 
should  be  harrowed  and  made  as  fine  as  possible.  Then 
the  grain  is  sown  broadcast  or  it  is  drilled  in.  If  it  is 
sown  broadcast,  another  harrowing  should  be  given  to 
cover  the  grain. 

There  are  some  advantages  in  the  use  of  a  drill. 
This  machine  plants  the  grain  at  a  uniform  depth  and 
covers  it  at  one  operation.  The  plants  germinate  and 
grow  to  maturity  more  uniformly  than  with  broadcast 
seeding.  There  is  also  a  saving  of  one  to  two  pecks  o\ 
seed  wheat  to  the  acre. 

For  the  sake  of  conserving  soil  moisture,  some  good 
farmers  harrow  the  wheat  after  it  has  sprouted  and  has 
grown  an  inch  or  two  in  height.  A  few  plants  may  be 
destroyed,  but  the  gain  to  the  crop  far  outweighs  the 
slight  loss. 

Harvesting.  --The  proper  time  for  harvesting  wheat 
is  indicated  by  the  straw  turning  to  a  yellow  color. 
It  is  not  best  to  wait  till  the  wheat  is  dead  ripe,  as  many 
of  the  kernels  fall  out  of  the  chaff  and  are  lost  in  the 
operations  of  cutting,  shocking,  and  stacking.  When 
the  kernel  of  wheat  has  passed  the  soft  milk  and  dough 
stage,  but  is  still  soft  enough  to  be  indented  by  the 
thumb  nail,  the  grain  is  in  just  the  proper  degree  of 
ripeness  to  harvest. 

The  self-binder  is  used  in  most  parts  of  the  United 
States.  This  cuts  and  binds  the  wheat  into  bundles. 
They  are  then  put  into  shocks  properly  capped  until 
they  may  be  built  into  stacks  at  the  place  where  the 
threshing  is  to  be  done.  It  takes  from  one  to  two  weeks 
for  the  grain  in  the  stack  to  lose  the  extra  amount  of 
moisture  that  it  contains,  that  is,  it  is  said  to  go  through 
the  sweat  process.  Very  often  the  stacking  is  omitted 


190  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

and  the  bundles  of  grain  are  hauled  directly  to  the 
machine  for  threshing.  The  sweating  process  must 
then  take  place  in  the  bin.  Frequent  shovelings  are 
often  necessary  to  prevent  the  moist  grain  from  getting 
very  hot. 

Note.  —  On  the  large  farms  in  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States,  a  machine  called  the  header  is  used.  This  cuts  off  the  heads  of 
the  grain,  letting  the  straw  remain  standing.  The  heads  are  carried 
into  the  machine  and  are  there  directly  threshed.  This  is  a  large  ma- 
chine, a  harvester  and  thresher  in  one,  and  requires  a  great  number  of 
horses  to  pull  it. 

Weight  and  Yield  of  Wheat.  —  Sixty  pounds  is  the 
standard  weight  for  a  bushel  of  wheat.  If  it  is  lighter 
than  this  standard,  its  quality  is  reduced.  The  harder 
and  heavier  wheat  gives  the  best  quality  of  flour  and 
brings  the  highest  price  in  the  market. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  in  this  country  is  14 
bushels  to  the  acre.  In  the  northern  states  20  bushels 
is  considered  a  good  fair  yield,  but  many  farmers  are  able 
to  secure  from  30  to  40  bushels  to  the  acre. 

Corn.  —  The  United  States  is  the  great  corn-grow- 
ing country  of  the  world,  four  fifths  of  all  her  farmers 
being  engaged  in  the  industry  with  a  yield  that  is  greater 
than  all  the  other  countries  put  together  and  fifteen 
times  that  of  Argentina,  which  ranks  second.  The 
annual  crop  is  over  2,500,000,000  bushels,  which  would 
furnish  each  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  country  with 
25  bushels.  Its  double  use  as  food  for  man  and  beast 
keeps  the  demand  commensurate  with  the  supply  or 
even  beyond  it. 

Note.  —  If  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  for  1 906  had 
been  placed  in  wagons,  50  bushels  to  a  load,  and  20  feet  of  space 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  191 

allowed  for  each  wagon  and  team,  the  train  of  corn  would  have  reached 
nine  times  around  the  earth  at  the  equator.  —  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Agriculture. 

All  the  states  in  the  temperate  belt  raise  more  or  less 
corn,  but  the  seven  where  "  corn  is  king  "  are  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Nebraska,  Ohio,  and  Kansas. 
The  corn  plant  is  a  native  of  North  America,  probably 
originating  in  Mexico,  although  it  thrives  well  in  the 
regions  farther  north.  The  early  settlers  in  this  country 
were  taught  its  use  and  culture  by  the  Indians,  who  had 
cultivated  each  season  their  fields  of  maize  from  time 
out  of  mind.  It  formed  the  staple  food  of  the  first 
settlers  in  each  successive  region  to  the  west.  While 
not  so  much  used  for  human  food  now,  its  increased 
use  as  fodder,  both  in  its  green  and  its  matured  state, 
has  induced  farmers  in  certain  states  especially  adapted 
to  its  growth  to  increase  the  acreage  from  year  to 
year,  until  now  one  third  of  the  tilled  land  of  this 
country  is  planted  to  corn. 

Selecting  Seed  Corn.  —  Germination  tests  for  seed 
corn  have  been  described  on  page  151.  Professor 
Holden,  Iowa,  says  :  "  One  of  the  best  plans  is  to  select 
fifty  or  one  hundred  of.  the  very  best  ears  in  the  seed 
corn,  while  making  the  test  of  germination.  These 
ears  should  then  be  butted  and  tipped  and  each  ear 
shelled  by  itself  and  carefully  studied.  The  kernels 
should  have  a  bright,  cheerful  appearance,  be  full  and 
plump  at  the  tips  and  have  a  large  clear  germ,  otherwise 
they  should  be  discarded." 

All  the  seed  corn  for  the  next  crop  should  be  selected 
from  the  patch  which  was  planted  from  the  very  best 
ears.  It  is  a  very  common  practice  to  select  the  occa- 
sional good  ears  found  throughout  the  husking  season. 


192 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


There  are  three  important  reasons  why  this  should  not 
be  done.  In  the  first  place,  we  are  more  likely  to  neg- 
lect the  work  until  too  late,  when  we  find  ourselves 


FIG.  04.  FIG.  95. 

Fig.  94,  two  good  ears  of  seed  corn.  Note  the  straight  rows  of  kernels,  and  the  well-filled  butts 
and  tips.  Fig.  95,  two  poor  ears  of  seed  corn.  Note  the  crooked  rows  and  irregular  sized 
and  shaped  kernels.  No  corn  planter  can  plant  uniformly  such  seed  corn.  (Extension 
Division,  Minnesota  Agric.  Dept.) 

without  good  seed  for  the  next  year.  Again,  we  often 
begin  harvesting  from  the  poorest  parts  of  our  fields 
first  for  early  feeding,  as  this  corn  is  more  likely  to  be 
soft  and  will  not  crib  well.  The  chief  reason  is  that 
the  occasional  good  ears  which  are  harvested  through- 
out the  husking  season  have  necessarily  been  fertilized 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  pollen  from  the  scrub 
stalks  and  those  which  are  perhaps  barren. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


193 


Note.  —  In  the  northern  states  early  selection  of  seed  corn  is 
necessary  so  that  it  may  be  thoroughly  dried  before  freezing  weather 
comes.  Freezing  before  the  corn  is  thoroughly  dried  is  almost  certain 
to  injure  the  germ. 

It  is  a  good  practice  and  one  followed  by  many  corn 
growers  to  go  through  this  seed  patch  of  three  or  four 
acres  planted  from  the 
fifty  or  sixty  best  ears 
of  corn,  after  it  has  been 
laid  by  and  before  the 
tassels  appear,  and  to  cut 
out  all  the  weak  and 
sickly  stalks  and  those 
that  are  too  tall  and  late 
or  too  short  and  early 
and  in  this  way  to  pre- 
vent them  from  pro- 
ducing pollen  to  ferti- 
lize the  kernels  of  other 


ears. 


FIG.  96. 

a,  good  types  of  kernels  of  corn.  Note  the  broad 
tips.  Such  kernels  are  richer  in  food  nutrients, 
have  larger,  stronger  germs,  and  yield  a  larger 
proportion  of  corn  to  cob,  than  do  kernels  with 
small  pointed  tips,  like  those  shown  in  b. 


The  best  soil  for  corn  in  one  region  is  not  necessarily 
the  best  in  another.  In  the  central  prairie  states"  the 
ideal  corn  soils  are  a  silt  loam  or  a  black  clay  loam,  but 
these  are  not  at  all  the  most  desirable  corn  soils  for 
the  northeastern  and  eastern  tide-water  states.  Here 
the  gravelly  and  stony  loams  are  better,  because  the 
greater  elevation  and  consequent  shorter  season  make 
it  necessary  to  have  at  once  a  well-drained,  well-warmed, 
and  moisture-retaining  soil  to  satisfy  the  demands  of 
a  heavy,  rank-growing  crop.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  southern  seaboard  states,  owing  to  different  climatic 
conditions  and  altitude,  the  heavy  loams  and  clays  are 
best  adapted  to  corn. 
M.  &  H.  AG.  — 13 


194 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


Whatever  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  corn  is  to 
be  planted,  it  must  be  made  light  and  mellow  if  the 


FIG.  97.  —  Selection  of  Seed  Corn  from 
Standing  Corn. 

When  corn  is  selected  in  this  way,  one  can 
consider  the  stock  from  which  the  ears  are 
taken  as  well  as  the  ears  themselves.  (Ex- 
tension Division,  Minn.  Agric.  Dept.) 


FIG.  98.  —  To  show 
the  Best  Depth  at 
which  to  plant  Corn. 


plant  is  to  thrive.  Fall  plowing  followed  by  spring 
replowing,  if  the  soil  is  heavy,  and  harrowing  will 
place  the  soil  in  the  proper  condition. 

The  depth  at  which  corn  should  be  planted  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  varying  from  one  inch  in 
humid  regions  to  two  or  three  inches  in  the  drier  re- 
gions or  in  sandy  soil.  The  Indian  method  of  planting 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


195 


four  grains  in  a  hill  four  feet  each  way  has  not  been 
materially   changed    by    modern    methods.     Three    or 


FIG.  99.  —  Check  Row  Corn  Planter. 

four  kernels  in  hills  3§  feet  apart  is  now  the  general 
rule.  This  permits  easy  cultivation  of  the  field  both 
ways.  Another  method  is  to  plant  in  drills.  Good 


FIG.  100.  —  Root  Distribution  at  Silking  Time. 

Agriculture.) 


(Yearbook  U.  S.  Department  of 


196  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

results  as  to  yield  may  be  obtained  by  this  method 
if  the  land  is  reasonably  free  of  weeds.  Much  of  the 
success  in  raising  corn,  so  far  as  man  can  affect  it, 
depends  upon  keeping  the  weeds  down  and  the  surface 
of  the  ground  well  tilled.  Early  cultivations  may  be 


FIG.  101.  —  Two-row  Cultivator. 

deep,  but  the  later  ones  should  be  quite  shallow,  so  as 
not  to  disturb  the  roots. 

Suggestive  Experiment.  —  To  determine  the  best  depth  at  which 
to  plant  corn,  fill  a  glass  jar  with  garden  soil  to  a  height  of  5  or  6 
inches  from  the  top,  put  in  a  kernel  of  corn  flat  against  the  side  of  the  jar; 
put  in  another  inch  of  soil,  then  another  kernel  of  corn  as  before,  and  con- 
tinue this  until  the  jar  is  full,  arranging  the  kernels  spirally  as  shown  in 
Figure  98.  Moisten  the  soil,  cover  the  bottle  up  to  the  neck  with  black 
paper  or  cloth  and  set  it  in  a  warm  place.  By  taking  off  the  covering 
and  examining  the  seeds  daily  you  can  determine  the  best  depth  at  which 
to  plant  corn. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


197 


The  best  time  to  kill  weeds  is  before  they  have  made 
much  growth.  Frequent  and  shallow  early  cultivation 
effectively  destroys  the  weeds  and  forms  a  dust  mulch 
to  prevent  surface  evaporation.  Aside  from  these  two 
things,  the  farmer  can  do  nothing  to  better  his  crop 
after  the  selection  of  the  seed  is  made  and  the  planting 
done.  Hot  days  during  the  growing  period,  bright  sun- 
shine and  plenty  of  it,  and  abundant  rainfall  consti- 
tute good  corn  weather,  but  these  are  not  under  man's 
control. 

The  corn  is  now  usually  harvested  by  cutting  to  the 
ground  while  still  comparatively  green,  and  putting  it 


FIG.  102.  —  Corn  Harvester. 


up  in  shocks  of  good  size,  securely  tied  at  the  top. 
When  the  stalks,  or  stover,  are  well  cured,  the  corn  is 
usually  ready  to  husk.  It  should  be  stored  in  cribs 


198 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


which  allow  the  freest  possible  circulation  of  air.  Corn 
is  also  often  fed  from  the  bundle  to  fattening  steers. 

Good  corn  land  should  yield  from  80  to  90  bushels 
of  shelled  corn  an  acre.  The  fact  that  the  average 
yield  in  the  United  States  is  only  25  to  35  bushels  an 
acre  shows  poor  seed,  impoverished  land,  poor  culti- 
vation, or  a  combination  of  these  poor  conditions. 

Corn  Products.  —  Corn,  while  used  principally  as 
food  for  animals  and  man,  furnishes  the  basis  of  many 
other  products.  Among  these  are  alcohol,  whisky, 
and  malt  liquors.  Glucose  and  corn  starch,  used  re- 
spectively in  the  making  of  confectionery  and  in  cook- 
ing, are  two  other  well- 
known  products.  All 
parts  of  the  maize  plant 
have  other  uses  than 
as  a  food,  for  the  stalks 
and  husks  are  made 
into  a  coarse  paper,  the 
pith  forms  a  packing 
for  stopping  leaks  and 
is  therefore  carried  on 
war  vessels,  while  the 
cobs  are  made  into 
pipes.  Gluten  meal,  a 
common  stock  food,  is 
also  made  from  corn. 
Silos  and  Silage.  - 
A  silo  is  an  air-tight 
structure,  used  for  the 

FIG.  103.  —  Section  of  a  Silo. 

preservation  of  green, 

coarse  fodders  in  a  juicy  condition.     Silage,  or  ensilage, 
is  the  food  taken  out  of  a  silo. 


DECAYED 

SILAGE 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


199 


Indian  corn  is  preeminently  the  American  crop  suited 
to  be  preserved  in  silos,  but  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  soy 
beans,  Canadian  field  peas,  sorghum,  and  sugar  beet  pulp 
in  this  country,  and  meadow  grass  and  aftermath  in 
England  and  the  Scandinavian  countries,  are  also  pre- 
served in  this  manner.  Agricultural  literature  mentions 
the  siloing  of  a  large  number  of  plants,  like  vetches, 
small  grains  (cut  green),  cabbage  leaves,  sugar  beets, 
potatoes,  potato  leaves,  turnips,  brewers'  grains,  apple 
pomace,  and  refuse  from  corn  and  pea  canning  factories. 

Advantages  of  the  Silo.  —  i.  The  silo  preserves  a 
larger  quantity  of  the  nutritive  materials  of  the  orig- 
inal fodder  for  the  feeding  of  farm  animals  than  is 
possible  by  any  other  known  system  of  preservation. 

Grasses  and  other  green  crops  lose  some  of  their  food 
material  when  made  into  hay.  Indian  corn  loses  at 
least  10  per  cent  of  its  food  value  when  cured  in  shocks 
even  under  the  best  conditions,  while  in  ordinary  farm 
practice  the  loss  approaches  25  per  cent.  Exposure 
to  rain  and  storm,  rubbing  off  dry  leaves  and  thin 
stalks,  and  other  factors  tend  to  diminish  the  nutritive 
value  of  the  fodder,  so  that  very  often  only  one  half  of 
the  food  materials  originally  present  in  the  fodder  is 
left  by  the  time  it  is  fed  out.  In  addition,  the  remain- 
ing portion  of  the  fodder  is  less  digestible  and  less  nu- 
tritious because  the  fermentation  occurring  during  the 
curing  process  destroys  the  soluble  sugar  and  starch 
so  necessary  in  digestion. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  maximum  loss  in  the  modern, 
deep,  well-built  silos  is  10  per  cent.  Professor  King 
believes  that  the  necessary  loss  of  dry  matter  in  the 
silo  need  not  exceed  5  per  cent. 

2.  Ensilage  is  juicy,  and  juiciness  is  characteristic  of 


200  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

food  in  the  natural  form.  To  appreciate  this  we  need 
only  think  of  the  difference  between  a  ripe,  juicy  peach 
and  the  dried  fruit.  In  the  drying  or  curing  of  hay  or 
other  fodder  water  is  the  main  element  removed,  but 
with  it  go  certain  flavoring  matters  that  make  the  food 
pleasant  to  the  taste. 

3.  The  silo  furnishes  a  feed  oj  uniform  quality  readily 
accessible  and  available  the  whole  year. 

This  is  especially  valuable  in  the  case  of  milch  cows 
and  sheep,  which  are  particularly  sensitive  to  change 
in  their  feed. 

4.  The  silo  furnishes  the  most  economical  means  of 
storage  of  fodder. 

A  ton  of  hay  stored  in  mow  will  occupy  a  space  of 
about  400  cubic  feet,  a  ton  of  silage  about  50  cubic  feet. 
Counting  the  amount  of  dry  matter  in  the  ton  in  the 
mow  and  in  the  form  of  silage,  to  store  the  same  amount 
of  food  requires  about  three  times  as  much  room  in  the 
form  of  hay  as  in  silage  form. 

In  the  case  of  field-cured  fodder  corn  the  silo  is  still 
more  economical.  According  to  the  figures  of  experts 
an  acre  of  fodder  corn,  field-cured,  stored  in  the  most 
compact  form  possible,  will  occupy  a  space  ten  times  as 
great  as  in  the  form  of  silage. 

5.  The  silo  preserves  the  fodder  from  rain. 

This  prevents  losses  due  to  leaching  out  of  nutrients 
and  molding  after  wetting. 

6.  The  silo  carries  the  stock  through  the  late  summer 
droughts  if  filled  with  clover  or  other  green  crops  earlier 
in  the  season. 

7.  Silage  makes  it  possible  to  keep  two  cows  where  one 
was  kept  before.     The  same  area  of  land  will  support 
more  stock  than  when  pasturing  is  practiced. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


2OI 


Silo  Structures.  -  -  The  silo  must  be  air-tight.  Bac- 
teria enter  the  silo  with  the  fodder  and  grow  and  mul- 
tiply rapidly,  as  shown  by  the  heating  of  the  mass  and 
the  formation  of  acid  in  it ;  in  other  words,  fermenta- 
tion begins.  If  the  silage  is  well  packed  so  as  to  leave 
no  unfilled  spaces  and  the  silo  walls  are  air-tight,  then 
only  acid  fermentation,  which  is  desirable,  takes  place. 
If  more  air  gains  entrance,  bacteria  causing  decay  will 


FIG.  104.  —  Students  constructing  a  Concrete  Silo.    (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 


continue  the  work  of   the    acid-forming  bacteria,  and 
rotten  silage  will  result. 

The  silo  must  be  deep.  Depth  is  necessary  in  order 
to  secure  pressure  on  the  fodder  and  thus  leave  as  little 
air  as  possible  in  the  mass.  From  30  to  40  feet  is  now 
recognized  as  standard  depth. 


202  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

The  silo  must  have  smooth,  vertical  walls  which  will 
offer  no  resistance  to  the  uniform  settling  of  the  fodder. 
Otherwise  air  spaces  may  be  formed,  and  thus  the  fodder 
be  spoiled. 

The  walls  of  the  silo  must  be  very  strong  so  as  not  to 
give  way  as  the  mass  settles.  The  outward  pressure 
of  cut  fodder  corn  is  great  and  the  walls  of  rectangular 
silos  especially  are  apt  to  spring.  In  the  round  wooden 
silos  every  board  acts  as  a  hoop,  and  as  boards  stretch 
but  little  lengthwise,  there  is  little  spreading  in  these 
silos.  Stave  silos  secured  by  iron  hoops  have  proved 
satisfactory  in  resisting  pressure  from  settling  and  are 
used  very  extensively.  Very  satisfactory  silos  are  also 
built  of  brick,  of  hollow  tile,  of  cement  blocks.  Probably 
the  most  satisfactory  silo  is  the  cylindrical  reenforced 
cement  silo.  It  has  all  the  advantages  of  the  best 
wooden  silos  and  in  addition  it  is  practically  ever- 
lasting. 

The  size  of  the  silo  must,  of  course,  be  determined 
by  the  size  of  the  herd  to  be  fed  from  it.  It  has  been 
determined  by  experiment  that  about  40  pounds  daily 
is  a  good  average  food  ration  for  cattle  a  head.  If  the 
season  for  feeding  is  180  days,  this  will  mean  7200 
pounds  for  each  cow.  As  silage  loses  about  10  per 
cent  in  weight  by  fermentation,  there  must  be  put  into 
the  silo  about  8000  pounds,  or  4  tons,  for  each  animal. 
One  ton  of  silage  occupies  about  50  cubic  feet,  therefore 
the  fodder  for  one  animal  will  require  a  space  of  200 
cubic  feet,  approximately. 

The  following  table  shows  the  capacity  in  tons  of 
circular  silos  from  20  feet  to  36  feet  in  depth,  and 
lofeet  to  18  feet  in  diameter,  also  the  number  of  acres 
of  corn,  averaging  10  tons  to  the  acre,  necessary  to  fill 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


203 


each,  and  the  number  of  cows  the  contents  of  each  will 
keep  for  180  days  with  40  pounds  of  feed  a  day. 


DIMENSIONS 

CAPACITY  TONS 

ACRES   TO   FILL,    10 
TONS  TO  ACRE 

COWS  IT  WILL  KEEP 
6    MONTHS,  40   LB. 
FEED  PER  DAY 

IO  X  2O 

28 

2.8 

8 

12  X  20 

40 

4.0 

1  1 

12  X  24 

49 

4.9 

*3 

12  X  28 

60 

6.0 

15 

I4X  22 

61 

6.1 

17 

14X24 

67 

6.7 

»9 

i4x  28 

83 

8.3 

22 

HX  30 

93 

9-3 

23 

16  x  24 

8? 

8.7 

24 

16  x  26 

97 

9-7 

26 

16  x  30 

119 

11.9 

29 

18  x  30 

151 

15.0 

37 

18  x  36 

1  80 

18.0 

45 

Filling  the  Silo.  —  Corn  has  the  largest  amount  of 
food  material  in  it  when  it  is  well  matured,  the  sugar 
'having  then  largely  changed  to  starch.  To  cut  corn 
for  silage  when  the  kernels  are  well  dented  has  been 
found  to  produce  the  best  results.  Then  the  kernels 
are  just  beginning  to  glaze  and  are  firm  and  in  their 
best  condition.  If  cut  at  an  earlier  stage,  the  sugar, 
which  is  then  present  in  large  quantities,  is  the  first  to 
be  lost  in  the  silage,  and  much  food  material  is  thus 
wasted. 

Clover  for  silage  is  cut  when  just  past  full  bloom,  the 
same  time  it  is  right  for  making  into  hay. 

The  crop  for  silage  must  be  cut  in  an  ensilage  cutter 
into  portions  of  a  size  convenient  for  feeding,  usually 


204 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


in  half-inch  lengths.  Corn  ensilage  must  usually  be 
trampled  upon  and  evened  as  the  layers  are  put  in,  in 
order  to  distribute  the  parts  evenly. 

Note.  —  A  flexible  pipe  called  a  distributor  is  attached  to  the  end  of 
the  blower  pipe  at  the  top  of  the  silo.    This  carries  the  silage  down  into 

the  silo  and  as  the  man 

in  the  silo  shifts  it  about 
the  silage  is  distributed 
evenly.  As  the  silo  is 
filled,  lengths  of  the  dis- 
tributor pipe  are  removed. 

Special  care  must 
be  taken  to  trample 
well  near  the  walls 
as  their  surface  of- 
fers some  resistance 
to  the  settling  mass. 
In  the  more  mod- 
ern deep  silos,  less 
trampling  is  neces- 
sary, but  the  sur- 
face must  be  kept 
even. 

If  delay  occurs 
during  the  rilling 
of  the  silo,  care  must 
be  taken  to  leave 

an  opening  at  the 
FIG.  105.  —  Filling  a  Silo.  r          , 

level   of  the   silage 

for  proper  ventilation,  otherwise  the  carbon  dioxide 
which  forms  above  the  mass  will  suffocate  one  descend- 
ing into  it. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  205 

It  is  now  quite  a  common  practice  to  add  water  to 
corn  silage  if  it  goes  into  the  silo  in  a  dry  state  because 
of  drought  or  very  hot  weather.  About  ten  pounds  of 
water  to  the  square  foot  when  filled,  and  a  like  quantity 
ten  days  afterwards,  has  been  tried  at  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station  with  satisfactory  results. 

Oats.  —  In  latitudes  too  far  north  to  grow  corn 
successfully,  oats  thrive,  while  they  will  also  grow  well 
in  all  the  Gulf  states  if  sown  in  the  fall.  Somewhat 
heavy  loams  give  the  best  yield,  although  most  varie- 
ties of  soils,  except  the  lightest,  will  produce  a  good  crop 
unless  there  may  be  too  much  humus  present,  in  which 
case  the  plant  runs  to  straw  and  yields  little  grain. 
As  a  rule,  oats  do  not  require  direct  fertilizing  unless 
there  is  a  lack  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  Manure 
must  be  used  sparingly,  if  at  all,  or  the  oats  straw  will 
be  heavy  and  lodge  easily  in  the  summer  rains. 

Fall  plowing,  followed  by  spring  harrowing  and  early 
sowing,  either  broadcast  or  in  drills,  is  generally  con- 
sidered best  for  oats,  although  in  America  good  crops 
are  obtained  without  plowing  the  ground  if  the  oats 
are  put  in  a  field  previously  planted  to  corn.  Eight 
to  ten  pecks  will  seed  an  acre  of  ground. 

It  is  a  common  thing  in  Canada  to  see'  barley  and 
oats  or  these  two  and  field  peas  sown  together,  the 
grain  yield  being  better  than  would  be  produced  from 
each  separately.  In  the  south  hairy  vetch  is  often 
mixed  with  oats  when  grown  for  fodder.  If  sown  in 
the  fall,  these  two  followed  by  a  crop  of  peas  make  the 
land  in  fine  condition  for  cotton  the  next  spring. 

Note.  —  Since  most  varieties  of  oats  stool  freely  and  a  single  kernel 
produces  a  number  of  stalks  of  grain,  some  farmers  seed  sparingly, 
claiming  that  just  as  good  results  are  obtained  as  if  a  larger  amount  of 


206 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


seed  were  used.  Others  claim  that  grain  should  be  sown  thick  enough 
to  prevent  stooling,  so  that  the  nourishment  from  each  kernel  may  be 
sent  into  a  single  culm,  thus  making  a  more  vigorous  plant. 

Varieties    and    Yields. --There    are    two    common 

species  of  oats,  one 
with  branches  on  all 
sides  of  the  stem,  open 
and  spreading,  our 
common  oats,  and  the 
other  with  branches  on 
one  side  only,  called 
side  oats,  or  horse  mane 
oats.  Of  the  first  kind, 
the  white  varieties  are 
the  most  cultivated. 

Thirty-two  pounds 
of  oats  is  considered  a 
bushel,  approximately 
one  fourth  of  which  is 
hulls  and  three  fourths 
kernel.  In  the  cooler 
portions  of  the  temper- 
ate zones  oats  often 
weigh  as  high  as  45  to 
50  pounds  to  the  meas- 
ured bushel.  For  ex- 
hibition purposes  oats 
arc  frequently  clipped  or  rubbed,  depriving  them  of  the 
end  of  the  hull  surrounding  the  kernels.  This  removes 
the  lighter  part  of  the  oats  and  increases  the  weight 
per  bushel.  It  is  customary  for  judges  to  throw  out 
from  competition  at  once  samples  of  oats  that  have 
been  clipped  or  rubbed  too  much. 


FIG.  106.  — Two  Types  of  Oat  Panicles. 
a,  the  open,  or  spreading;  b,  the  side,  or  horse  mane. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS  207 

The  average  yield  for  the  United  States  is  between 
30  and  35  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  under  ordinary 
conditions  a  yield  of  anything  less  than  40  bushels  to 
the  acre  should  be  considered  poor. 

The  United  States  exported  seven  times  as  many 
bushels  of  oats  in  1901  as  1905,  yet  the  yield  in  the 
latter  year  was  200,000,000  bushels  greater  than  in  the 
former.  These  figures  show  that  home  consumption 
of  this  grain  is  increasing,  either  as  food  for  horses  or 
for  man  in  the  form  of  oatmeal,  rolled  oats,  and  other 
oat  breakfast  foods. 

Barley. --This  grain  is  of  much  less  general  im- 
portance than  the  three  preceding.  It  is  grown  almost 
entirely  to  make  malt  for  the  brewing  of  beer,  although 
it  has  an  increasing  use  as  food  for  stock.  In  the  past 
ten  years  there  has  been  in  the  United  States  an  increase 
of  1,000,000  acres  devoted  to  barley  raising,  with  an 
increased  yield  of  30,000,000  bushels. 

The  classification  of  barleys  is  based  upon  the  number 
of  rows  on  the  head,  — two,  four,  or  six.  Barley  grown 
for  the  brewers  in  Europe  is  usually  of  the  two-rowed 
variety,  a  slow  ripener.  In  the  United  States  the  six- 
row  variety  is  generally  grown  both  for  brewing  and 
for  feeding  purposes. 

Hull-less  barley  is  grown  for  feeding  purposes,  but 
does  not  usually  yield  as  much  as  the  other  varieties. 

Barley  has  the  shortest  straw  of  the  small  grains. 
The  heads  are  usually  armed  with  long,  strong,  spread- 
ing beards  that  grow  from  the  tips  of  the  glumes. 
These  beards  make  the  handling  of  the  straw  uncom- 
fortable, and  when  eaten  by  cattle  or  horses  they  stick 
into  the  gums,  causing  considerable  distress. 

The   hull  of  the  barley  grows   tight  to  the   kernel, 


208 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


and  the  grain  instead  of  being  roundish  has  a  distinctly 
ribbed  or  angular  appearance. 

For  best  results  barley  should  have  rich,  well-drained 
soil.  The  soil  should  be  light  to  medium,  and  if  the 
grain  is  grown  for  malt,  not  too  rich  in  nitrogen.  In 


FIG.  107.  — Types  of  Barley. 


«,  hexagon,  6-row;  b,  manshury,  6-row;  c,  duckbill,  2-row;  d,  beardless,  2-row;  e,  long, 
2-row;  /,  Mandschvri,  6-row;  g,  beardless,  6-row.    (Minnesota  Experiment  Station.) 

England,  where  the  soil  and  climate  are  particularly 
adapted  to  this  grain,  barley  is  commonly  sown  in 
land  previously  planted  to  turnips.  The  latter  crop 
is  usually  consumed  on  the  land  by  sheep,  and  their 
manure  enriches  the  soil  for  the  succeeding  crop. 
Barley  so  grown  usually  produces  high  yields  per  acre 
of  grain  of  best  quality. 

From  seven  to  nine  pecks  of  barley  will  seed  an  acre. 
Seeding  may  be  a  little  later  than  for  oats.     Forty- 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS  209 

eight  pounds  of  barley  is  the  standard  for  a  measured 
bushel.  For  hull-less  barley  it  is  sixty  pounds  for  a 
bushel. 

The  price  of  malting  barley  depends  largely  on  its 
bright,  clear  appearance,  which  indicates  high  germinat- 
ing power.  Barley  discolors  very  easily,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  it  from  drenching  rains  after 
it  has  been  cut  in  the  fields. 

Rye. — The  relative  unimportance  of  rye  in  this 
country  is  revealed  by  the  statistics  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  which  show  that  the  United  States 
raises  only  about  one  fifth  as  much  rye  as  barley. 
Yet  this  small  amount  is  seven  eighths  of  the  entire 
crop  of  North  America.  Germany  produces  annually 
twelve  times  as  much  as  North  America,  France  twice 
as  much,  while  Russia's  crop  is  over  twenty  times  as 
great.  The  large  production  of  this  grain  in  these 
European  countries  is  due  to  its  use  there  in  making 
bread,  the  wheat  crop  being  uncertain,  the  consequent 
price  placing  it  beyond  the  reach  of  the  peasantry. 

Rye  is  adapted  to  the  cooler  regions  of  the  United 
States  and  is  often  sown  on  land  too  poor  for  other 
grains.  It  is  usually  sown  in  the  fall,  for  it  stands 
winter  freezing  without  damage  to  the  yield.  It  may 
be  used  for  pasturage,  and  it  may  be  turned  under  as 
a  green  manure. 

Rye  has  the  same  classification  as  wheat,  namely, 
spring  and  winter.  The  latter  variety  is  the  more 
productive,  and  consequently  cultivated  more  ex- 
tensively. The  grain  may  be  distinguished  from  wheat 
by  its  longer,  slenderer,  and  more  wrinkled  appearance. 
An  average  yield  of  rye  is  20  bushels  an  acre,  and  the 
standard  weight  is  56  pounds  a  bushel.  In  some  places 
M.  &  H.  AG.  — 14 


210  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

in  Europe  rye  is  sown  in  midsummer,  mowed  for  green 
fodder  in  autumn,  and  left  to  produce  a  grain  crop  the 
following  spring.  It  may  also  be  pastured  judiciously 
in  spring  without  harm;  when  handled  in  this  way  it 
generally  produces  a  good  crop  of  small  but  very  mealy 
grain. 

Rye  straw,  being  tougher  and  longer  than  that  of 
the  other  grains,  is  much  used  for  plaiting,  for  the 
manufacture  of  horse  collars,  for  packing  material,  and 
commands  a  higher  price  than  that  of  the  other  small 
grains. 

Buckwheat.  -  -  This  grain  is  a  native  of  the  Volga 
basin,  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  central  Asia. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Spain  by  the  Moors 
and  thence  spread  over  western  Europe,  but  another 
account  ascribes  its  introduction  there  to  the  crusaders. 
The  seed  is  gray  or  black  and  triangular,  resembling 
the  beechnut,  from  which  the  Germans  named  it 
beech-wheat,  which  the  English  corrupted  to  buck- 
wheat. 

Buckwheat  is  usually  classed  as  a  grain,  but  it  must 
not  be  thought  of  as  belonging  to  the  grass  family,  as 
do  the  other  grains.  It  belongs  to  the  smartweed  family. 

Buckwheat  is  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills.  If  the 
former,  about  a  bushel  of  seed  is  required;  if  the  latter, 
only  three  quarters  of  a  bushel.  It  will  grow  well  on 
light,  poor  soils.  When  green-manured,  it  furnishes  a 
large  quantity  of  humus  to  enrich  the  soil. 

Bees  utilize  the  nectar  in  its  flowers  for  honey,  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States  it  is  sown  on  this 
account.  As  a  supplementary  food  for  man  in  the 
form  of  griddle  cakes,  it  is  a  very  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious article  of  diet. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


211 


Rice. — This  grain,  one  of  the  most  useful  and  ex- 
tensively cultivated  of  all  grains,  supplies  the  staple 


FIG.  108.  —  A  Field  of  Rice. 

food  of  nearly  one  third  of  the  human  race.  Originally 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  it  is  now  cultivated  in  all 
quarters  of  the  globe  where  conditions  of  warmth  and 
moisture  are  suitable ;  in  subtropical  countries  where 
there  is  much  moisture  in  the  soil,  the  rice  plant  thrives 
well.  The  head  of  the  rice  plant  is  bearded  like  barley, 
but  is  borne  in  loose  heads,  or  panicles,  at  the  top  of 


212  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

the  stem  somewhat  as  in  oats,  and  when  unhusked 
resembles  barley. 

In  China  rice  is  sown  in  seed  beds  and  afterwards 
transplanted.  The  rice  grounds  are  carefully  kept 
free  from  weeds,  although  often  so  wet  that  a  man 
cannot  walk  in  them  without  sinking  to  the  knees. 
In  many  parts  of  China  two  crops  a  year  are  obtained. 

In  South  Carolina,  where  the  best  rice  known  in 
the  market  is  grown,  although  not  in  large  quantities, 
the  grain  is  sown  in  rows  in  the  bottom  of  trenches 
about  1 8  inches  apart,  the  trenches  are  filled  with 
water  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  till  the  seeds 
germinate,  the  water  is  then  drawn  off  and  later  the 
field  is  flooded  again  for  two  weeks  to  kill  the  weeds. 
When  the  grain  is  near  maturity,  the  field  is  flooded 
again. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  marshy  lands  were 
adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  grain,  but  it  has  been  found 
that  land  where  there  is  always  the  same  abundance 
of  water  is  not  so  suitable  as  those  in  which  the  supply 
of  moisture  can  be  regulated  according  to  the  season 
and  the  growth  of  the  plant.  Louisiana,  Arkansas, 
and  Texas  have  good  soils  for  rice  culture.  There 
the  grain  is  planted  with  drills  just  as  wheat  is  in 
northern  latitudes,  and  water  is  turned  on  when  the 
plants  are  from  five  to  six  inches  high. 

Rice  is  harvested,  threshed,  winnowed,  and  placed 
in  sacks  much  as  wheat  is,  the  land  by  the  time  the 
grain  is  fully  matured  being  compact  enough  to  bear 
the  weight  of  machinery.  Rice  yields  much  more 
grain  than  wheat  to  the  acre  and  brings  about  the  same 
price,  but  as  the  cost  of  production  is  greater  it  may  not 
be  a  more  profitable  crop. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  213 

Fall-grown  cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  or  hairy  vetch 
green-manured  in  the  spring  will  render  a  field  in  good 
condition  for  planting  rice  in  early  June. 

Uses  of  Rice.  —  Rice  is  a  fat-producing  and  heat- 
giving  rather  than  a  flesh-forming  food.  Owing  to 
the  small  quantity  of  gluten  it  contains,  it  is  unfit  for 
being  baked  into  bread.  The  Japanese  make  a  beer 
from  it  which  is  in  general  use  among  them,  but  is 
always  heated  before  being  drunk.  The  Chinese  make 
several  kinds  of  rice  wine,  some  of  which  they  esteem 
very  highly  because  of  their  great  intoxicating  qualities. 

A  starch  made  from  rice  is  in  common  use  in 
England  in  laundries  and  muslin  manufactories.  Rice 
straw  is  much  used  for  plaiting.  The  refuse  from 
cleaning  rice  for  market,  known  as  rice  meal  and  rice 
dust,  is  valuable  as  a  stock  food.  Experiments  are 
being  made  in  Texas  with  satisfactory  results  in  feeding 
poor  rice  crops  to  stock.  There  is  a  considerable  loss 
each  year  from  the  fact  that  a  certain  portion  of  the 
crop  is  unmarketable  owing  to  damage  in  harvesting  or 
storing.  It  is  thought  that  if  rice  meal  is  valuable 
as  a  stock  food,  the  whole  grain  may  be  even  more  so. 
This  use  of  the  damaged  crop  or  of  the  surplus  in  some 
years  may  prevent  much  waste. 

SUGAR  PLANTS 

Sugar  Cane. --The  three  sugar  plants  are  sugar 
cane,  sorghum,  and  sugar  beets.  The  united  farm  value 
of  sugar  beets  and  sugar  cane  in  the  United  States  and 
her  possessions  in  1912  was  more  than  $60,000,000. 
The  sugar  cane  is  grown  in  all  the  South  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  states  for  sirup  making,  and  for  sugar  making  in 
Florida,  Louisiana,  and  Texas.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 


214  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

that  sugar  cane  when  grown  on  poor,  sandy  soils  produces 
a  purer  sap  and  one  which  makes  a  lighter  colored  sirup 
than  when  grown  on  dark  or  very  fertile  soils,  but  the 
former  soils,  being  very  deficient  in  plant  food,  must 
be  well  fertilized  in  order  to  produce  a  crop  of  suffi- 
cient magnitude  to  make  the  growth  of  sugar  cane 
profitable.  A  crop  of  15  to  25  tons  an  acre  is  quite 
common  under  such  conditions.  Each  ton  will  make 
from  1 8  to  24  gallons  of  sirup  where  up-to-date  methods 
of  extraction  and  evaporation  of  the  sap  are  used. 

The  sugar  cane  is  one  of  the  grasses.  It  has  fibrous 
roots  and  a  stalk  made  up  of  joints  filled  with  pith. 
It  varies  in  length  from  4  feet  to  15  feet,  depending 
on  the  variety.  Although  the  sugar  cane  bears  some 
fertile  seeds  in  its  tassel,  it  is  not  through  them  that 
the  sugar  cane  is  propagated,  except  for  experimental 
purposes.  At  the  node  under  the  base  of  each  leaf 
there  is  a  bud,  or  eye,  which  is  used  for  growing  the  next 
crop  of  cane. 

For  planting,  the  ground  is  prepared  by  deep  plow- 
ing, then  rows  5  to  7  feet  wide  are  made  by  throw- 
ing up  the  soil  into  high  ridges.  A  furrow  is  plowed 
through  the  length  of  the  ridge,  in  the  bottom  of  which 
the  canes  are  laid  in  continuous  lines  and  covered  with 
about  four  inches  of  soil.  Here  they  lie  protected 
against  frosts  till  spring,  when  the  earth  is  thrown  from 
each  side  of  the  cane  by  plows,  and  all  but  a  slight 
covering  of  soil  is  removed  from  the  cane.  Being  thus 
laid  on  a  well-drained  ridge,  the  eyes  commence  their 
growth  earlier  than  they  otherwise  would. 

After  the  cane  has  come  up,  a  fertilizer  is  applied 
and  the  canes  are  recovered  with  earth.  A  disk  cul- 
tivator is  used  as  often  as  is  necessary  between  the  rows, 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


215 


and  when  the  cane  has  grown  so  that  this  is  prevented, 
the  hoe  is  used  to  keep  the  crop  free  from  weeds. 

Sorghum.  —  Sorghum  as  a  fodder  has  been  mentioned 
on  page  199.  The  plant  is  also  used  as  a  grain  in  semi- 
arid  regions  of  the  west  where  the  corn  crop  is  uncertain. 

The  sorghums  are  giant  grasses  with  solid,  pithy 
stems.  The  leaves  are  long  and  broad.  The  planting 
and  tillage  are  very  much  the  same  as  for  corn. 

Although  originally  a  semitropical  plant,  sorghum  has 
wider  adaptation  than  corn,  and  this,  with  its  ability  to 
withstand  a  more  protracted  drought,  has  made  it  a 
common  crop  throughout  the  country,  its  production 
having  increased  enormously  in  recent  years. 

Broom  corn,  Kaffir  corn,  Jerusalem  corn,  durra,  and 


FIG.  109.  —  Kaffir  Corn. 


milo  maize  are  varieties  of  the  sorghum  plant  without 
sugar  enough  for  sirup  making. 

Broom  corn  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brooms. 
There  are  two  types  of  this  plant,  the  standard  and 


2l6 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


the  dwarf  types,  the  standard  variety  growing  to  z. 
height  of  from  10  to  15  feet,  while  the  dwarf  variety 
grows  from  4  to  6  feet  in  height.  The  dwarf  broom 
corn  is  used  in  making  whisk  brushes,  and  the  standard 
variety  in  making  large  brooms. 

Kaffir  corn,  Jerusalem  corn,  durra,  and  milo  maize 
are  grown  for  their  seeds,  the  most  important  of  which 
is  the  Kaffir  corn.  They  are  very  similar  in  many 
respects  and  are  especially  adapted  for  growing  in 
regions  lacking  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture.  They 
are  particularly  valuable  on  the  semiarid  plains  of  the 
southwest. 

Sugar  Beets.  —  Beets  grown  for  making  into  sugar 
must  receive  somewhat  different  treatment  from  that 


FIG.  no.  —  Beet  Sugar  Factory,  Nebraska. 

given  when  they  are  grown  as  a  vegetable.  Numerous 
experiments  conducted  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  have  proved  that  the 
best  soil  for  the  sugar  beet  in  all  the  arid  regions  is  the 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS  217 

sandy  loam.  In  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and  central 
New  York  heavier  loams  or  clay  loams,  if  well  supplied 
with  moisture  and  not  too  stiff,  are  best  adapted  to 
this  crop.  Too  much  humus  or  nitrogen  will  make  the 
plant  run  to  leaves  and  reduce  the  sugar  content. 
The  profits  of  the  crop  depend  upon  the  yield  and  the 
percentage  of  sugar  from  the  beets,  for  most  factories 
pay  for  their  beets  on  the  basis  of  the  sugar  content. 
As  this  percentage  depends  largely  upon  the  grade  of 
seed  sown,  it  follows  that  careful  selection  of  seed  is 
the  first  factor  in  raising  sugar  beets  profitably.  Efforts 
are  now  being  made  in  various  states  to  produce  seed 
of  superior  quality  by  scientific  methods.  Where  this 
is  done  and  the  farmer  is  careful  to  get  his  supply  from 
this  reliable  source,  the  percentage  of  sugar  may  be 
expected  to  equal  that  of  Germany,  where  the  industry 
has  reached  its  highest  development. 

The  soil  requires  deep  fall  plowing  after  manure  has 
been  applied,  followed  by  spring  plowing  and  thorough 
harrowing.  The  soil  must  be  mellow  or  the  roots 
may  protrude  above  the  ground,  in  which  case  that 
portion  exposed  to  the  air  will  be  entirely  wasted. 
The  drills  for  the  sugar  beet  are  about  one  and  one 
half  to  two  feet  apart.  It  is  not  desirable  that  the  roots 
shall  be  very  large,  and  in  thinning  them  after  the 
plants  have  attained  a  little  growth  above  the  ground,  a 
space  of  no  more  than  six  inches  should  be  left  between 
the  plants.  In  some  localities  young  plants  are  trans- 
planted like  cabbages.  This,  with  the  careful  cultiva- 
tion necessary,  makes  the  labor  cost  of  production  high. 

Sugar  beets  must  be  harvested  before  the  frosts  come. 
The  roots  may  be  loosened  by  machinery;  they  are 
then  pulled  and  the  tops  cut  off.  If  they  cannot  be 


2i8  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

hauled  at  once  to  the  factory,  they  should  be  stored  in 
earth-covered  piles  in  the  open  air. 

OIL  PLANTS 

Of  the  oleaginous,  or  oil-producing,  plants,  cotton 
probably  ranks  first.  Formerly  the  seeds  of  this  plant 
when  separated  from  the  fiber  were  treated  as  waste 
matter,  to  be  disposed  of  in  the  easiest  and  most  eco- 
nomical way  possible.  Experiments  finally  demon- 
strated their  great  worth,  not  alone  for  the  oil  in  them, 
but  also  for  their  fertilizing  and  stock-feeding  value. 

The  United  States  exported  over  50,0x30,000  gallons 
of  cottonseed  oil  in  1912,  with  a  value  of  $15,000,000. 

Flax  seed  yields  an  oil,  called  linseed  oil,  which  is 
much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes,  paints,  and 
printer's  ink. 

Castor  oil  is  made  from  the  castor  bean,  and  the 
pomace,  which  remains  from  the  extraction,  though 
poisonous,  is  an  excellent  fertilizer,  containing  potash, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen.  The  most  important  use 
of  castor  oil  in  this  country  is  for  dyeing  cotton  goods. 
Its  second  important  use  is  as  a  medicine.  Its  use  as 
a  lubricant  is  quite  common  in  all  countries. 

The  olive  is  cultivated  in  southwestern  United  States 
and  California,  not  only  for  the  fruit  which  is  put  into 
a  brine  when  green,  but  also  for  the  oil  which  is  extracted 
from  the  ripe  fruit  and  used  for  salads  and  cooking  and 
also  as  medicine. 

FIBER  PLANTS 

Cotton  easily  ranks  first  among  the  fiber-producing 
plants  in  production,  value,  and  importance.  The 
so-called  cotton  belt  includes  almost  the  whole  of  the 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


219 


United   States  south  of  latitude  35   degrees.     In  this 
belt  is  produced  over  two  thirds  of  the  world's  crop 


FIG.  in.  — Cotton  Bolls. 

of  this  staple.  This  plant  will  grow  on  good  soil  and 
it  will  grow  on  poor  soil.  It  will  yield  rich  returns  when 
the  soil  is  well  prepared,  well  cultivated,  and  well 
drained,  and  when  the  opposite  conditions  prevail, 
the  crop  is  not  by  any  means  a  failure. 

As  the  great  enemy  of  the  cotton  plant,  the  boll 
weevil,  is  constantly  extending  the  range  of  its  ravages, 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  urges  upon 
cotton  growers  methods  which  will  secure  an  early 
maturing  of  the  crop  in  order  that  the  injurious  results 
of  the  insect  may  be  minimized.  Early  plowing,  the 


220  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

first  one  being  in  the  preceding  autumn,  resulting  in  a 
mellow  soil  from  6  to  10  inches  deep,  followed  by  throw- 
ing up  ridges,  which  are  subsequently  harrowed,  with 
well-defined  water  furrows  between,  is  the  first  step. 
The  application  of  readily  soluble  fertilizers  from  one 
to  three  weeks  before  planting  is  advised,  but  an  ex- 
cess of  nitrogen  should  be  avoided. 

A  variety  of  cotton  seed  should  be  selected  the 
habit  of  which  is  to  bloom  early,  mature  quickly,  and 
open  its  bolls  rapidly.  Planting,  should  be  as  early  as 
past  experience  has  shown  to  be  reasonably  safe. 
"  Plant  when  the  soil  has  been  properly  prepared  and 
is  in  workable  condition,  and  when  the  proper  date  has 
arrived,"  regardless  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  and 
the  direction  of  the  wind.  The  plants  should  be  set 
about  2  feet  apart  in  rows  which  are  3  feet  apart. 
Many  planters  reserve  a  part  of  the  fertilizer  and 
apply  it  directly  in  the  furrows  with  the  seed,  but  25 
to  40  pounds  of  the  readily  soluble  nitrate  of  soda  to 
the  acre  may  be  used  instead. 

Cultivating  begins  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  in  sight, 
or  even  before  if  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall.  Hand  cul- 
tivation begins  with  the  appearance  of  the  third  leaf, 
the  object  being  to  thin  out  the  plants  to  the  required 
distance  apart  and  destroy  any  weeds  which  may  have 
started.  After  this,  cultivation  once  a  week  is  prac- 
ticed in  order  to  maintain  a  good  dirt  mulch.  Little 
if  any  cultivation  should  be  given  after  the  plants 
begin  to  bloom  freely.  The  general  rule  is  that  early, 
frequent,  and  shallow  cultivation  tends  to  produce  an 
early  crop  ;  deeper  and  later  continued  cultivation  tends 
to  delay  the  crop,  but  may  increase  the  final  yield  in 
sections  not  infested  by  the  boll  weevil.  It  is  recom- 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


221 


mended  that  the  entire  field  of  plants  shall  be  uprooted 
and  burned  in  the  fall  after  the  crop  has  been  picked. 

Flax.  —  It  has    been   said  that  no  other  plant  not 
yielding  food  is  so  valuable  to  man  as  flax.     It  is  highly 


FIG.  112. — -Flax,  grown  for  Seed  (left-hand  plot)  and  for  Fiber  (right-hand  plot). 

valuable  for  the  fibers  of  its  inner  bark,  from  which 
linen  cloth  of  varying  degrees  of  fineness  is  made,  and 
for  its  seeds,  which  yield  linseed  oil,  already  spoken 
of  under  Oil.  Oil  cake  is  extensively  used  as  feed  for 
cattle,  and  linseed  meal  is  used  as  a  poultice.  Flax 
fiber  is  one  of  the  materials  out  of  which  paper  is  made. 


222  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

Flax  is  grown  in  this  country  less  for  its  fiber  than  for 
its  seed.  It  will  grow  almost  anywhere  in  the  United 
States,  but  it  needs  a  strong,  rich  soil  and  careful 
handling  at  every  stage  of  its  production  and  manu- 
facture, its  culture  demanding  a  greater  amount  of 
labor  than  almost  any  other  crop.  Much  depends  upon 
the  thickness  of  the  sowing  of  flax.  When  sown  thick 
and  pulled  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  it  yields  a  fine  fiber, 
but  if  a  coarser  fiber  is  desired,  the  plants  must  be  given 
more  room.  If  grown  for  a  coarse  fiber  and  for  seed, 
the  plants  must  reach  maturity  before  being  harvested. 
It  is  then  sown  at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  three  pecks 
an  acre.  Flax  plants  are  usually  pulled,  but  in  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  where 
the  flax  is  grown  for  the  seed  only,  it  is  cut  with  a 
reaper  or  with  a  binder. 

It  has  been  thought  that  flax  drains  the  land  of  fer- 
tility, but  experiments  have  shown  that  it  does  not 
equal  corn  or  oats  in  this  respect.  It  does  deplete  the 
soil  of  nitrogen,  hence  it  should  be  preceded  by  clover 
or  some  other  legume  in  the  rotation.  Almost  the  entire 
flax  crop  of  this  country  is  grown  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  largest  yields  are  obtained  from  virgin 
prairie  land.  On  account  of  a  fungus  disease,  flax  wilt, 
the  yield,  when  grown  on  a  field  two  years  in  succes- 
sion, is  materially  lessened,  or  it  may  be  a  total  failure. 
(See  page  283.) 

Hemp. --This  plant,  which  produces  a  coarse  fiber 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  sailcloth,  ropes,  and  the  like, 
is  an  annual,  native  of  warmer  parts  of  Asia,  but  has  been 
naturalized  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  America. 
It  adapts  itself  to  wide  diversities  of  climate.  It  is 
easily  injured  by  frost,  but  its  rapid  growth  enables  it 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


223 


usually  to  reach  maturity  during  the  hot  summer  season 
of  cold  countries.  It  thrives  best  on  moist  alluvial 
soil.  If  conditions 
are  favorable  to 
rapid  growth  at  first, 
the  fiber  is  of  greater 
length.  Like  flax, 
hemp  is  pulled  soon 
after  flowering,  if  cul- 
tivated for  a  fine 
fiber,  but  if  a  coarser 
fiber  and  seed  are  the 
object,  the  plants 
should  mature. 
Caged  birds  are  very 
fond  of  hemp  seed. 

STIMULANTS 

Mints.  —  Of  the 
plants  which  furnish 
stimulants,  either 
medicinal  or  aro- 
matic, the  mints  are 
the  only  ones  culti- 
vated to  any  extent  on  farms  in  this  country.  The 
plants  of  this  family  are  fragrant  perennials,  the  foliage 
containing  an  essential  oil,  which  is  extracted  for  va- 
rious uses.  The  three  best  known  species  are  the  spear- 
mint, used  for  culinary  purposes,  peppermint,  used  in 
making  candy,  and  bergamot-mint,  in  perfumes.  All 
mints  have  medicinal  properties. 

Any   soil   that   is   good   for   potatoes   will   serve   for 
mints.     This  crop  exhausts    the  soil    upon  which  it  is 


FIG.  113.  —  Hemp. 


224  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

grown  to  such  an  extent  that  it  should  not  be  allowed 
to  occupy  the  land  continuously,  except  upon  reclaimed 
swamp  lands,  where  it  may  be  grown  years  in  succes- 
sion. It  is  propagated  by  rootstocks  (see  page  154)  set 
a  few  inches  apart  in  shallow  trenches  30  inches  apart. 
It  must  be  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds,  first  by 
horse  cultivation,  then  by  hand.  In  midsummer  the 
tops  are  cut  and  cured  like  hay,  then  stored  under 
cover  for  distilling.  In  this  country  mints  are  raised 
most  extensively  in  southwestern  Michigan  and  north- 
western Indiana. 

GRASSES 

Grass  Crop.  —  All  the  grasses  and  clovers  that  are 
used  for  pasturage  and  hay  are  known  by  the  general 
term  grass  crop.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  corn  and 
wheat  crops  show  a  greater  cash  value,  the  grass  crop 
is  really  the  most  valuable  and  the  most  important 
crop  grown.  The  estimated  cash  value  of  the  hay  crop 
does  not  include  the  worth  of  the  pasturage,  of  which 
there  is  an  immense  area  in  the  United  States.  The 
production  cost  of  the  corn  crop  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  hay,  so  that  the  net  profits  from  the  two  crops 
are  approximately  equal.  Again,  the  full  value  of  hay 
to  the  farmer  does  not  appear  in  the  statistical  figures 
of  the  value  of  the  crop.  The  grasses,  while  being 
grown  for  hay,  store  the  ground  with  humus  by  the 
decay  of  their  roots  and  stubble,  and  forage  plants  rich 
in  nitrogen,  like  the  clovers,  leave  nitrogen,  the  most 
costly  fertilizer,  in  the  soil  for  the  succeeding  crop  in 
the  rotation.  The  indirect  value  of  the  grass  crop  to 
the  farmer  fully  equals  the  direct  cash  value  of  the  hay. 

Professor  Thomas  Shaw  says :  "  In  the  absence  of 
grass,  the  humus  supply  in  the  land  cannot  be  so  well 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


225 


maintained  in  any  other  way,  which  means  that  with- 
out it  land  cannot  be  kept  for  a  considerable  term  of 
years  in  a  proper  mechanical  condition.  Without  the 
grass  crop  weeds  cannot  be  so  readily  kept  at  bay. 
In  its  absence  some  soils  blow  and  others  are  carried 
away  by  the  action  of  water,  which  may  fall  in  the 
form  of  rain  or  snow.  In  its  absence  live  stock  cannot 
be  maintained  on  the  farm  without  undue  expense,  and 
consequently  mixed  farming  will  be  impossible.  With- 
out a  grass  crop  true  rotation  is  not  possible  without 
great  expense,  for  one  cereal  following  another  does  not 
rest  or  restore  the  land,  unless  the  cereal  is  a  legumi- 
nous plant.  Beyond  all  question  grass  is  king  among 
the  crops  of  the 
farm  in  the  United 
States  and  so  it  will 
continue  to  be." 

Hay  and  Pasture 
Crops.  —  Members 
of  two  great  fam- 
ilies of  plants  are 
grown  for  hay  and 
pasturage,  the 
grasses  and  the 
legumes.  Of  the 
grasses  timothy  is 
the  most  valuable 
and  the  most  widely 
cultivated  for  hay. 
Two  other  hay 
grasses  well  known 
in  the  Dakotas 
and  Canada 


are 

M.  &  H.  AG. IS 


FIG.  114. — Timothy. 


226 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


the  Russian  brome  grass  and  western  rye  grass.     Ken- 
tucky bluegrass  is   important  for  pasturage  in  a  large 

part  of  this  country, 
but  little  used  for 
hay.  Johnson  grass 
is  the  best  hay  grass 
of  the  southern 
states,  but  is  a  very 
objectionable  weed 
in  tilled  land,  while 
Bermuda  grass 
forms  their  best 
pasture  sod  and  also 
makes  good  hay 
when  grown  in  rich 
land.  Quack  grass, 
a  persistent  grower, 
should  never  be 
sown,  for  it  is  hard 
to  eradicate  it  after 
it  once  gets  started. 
Sorghum  is  a  hardy 
giant  grass  that  is 
grown  both  for 
sirup  and  for  hay. 
Millet  in  several  varieties  is  frequently  grown  for  hay. 
Of  the  legumes  red  clover,  alsike  clover,  and  alfalfa  form 
the  most  important  hay  crops,  the  first  ranking  next 
to  timothy,  with  which  it  is  often  mixed  as  a  producer. 
Alsike  clover  is  grown  on  soil  too  rich  or  too  wet  or 
too  dry  for  red  clover  to  thrive.  Its  introduction  east 
of  the  Mississippi  has  been  followed  by  increased  pro- 
duction and  widespread  popularity. 


FIG.  115.  —  Brome  Grass. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


227 


Sowing  Grass.  —  It  is  imperative  that  the  soil 
should  be  clean,  firm,  mellow,  and  moist  before  the 
seed  is  sown  for  the  hay 
crop;  but  if  hay  is  grown 
on  land  that  produced  corn 
or  potatoes  the  year  before, 
the  land  need  be  only  disked 
and  harrowed,  not  plowed. 
The  sowing,  which  is  gener- 
ally broadcast,  may  be  done 
in  early  autumn  or  early 
spring,  the  former  method 
producing  grass  that  is  bet- 
ter able  to  endure  summer 
droughts. 

It  is  quite  common  in 
many  sections  to  sow  grass 
seed  with  a  nurse  crop. 
This  may  be  any  one  of  the 
cereals.  When  alfalfa,  for 
instance,  is  desired  as  a  crop, 
it  is  often  sown  with  beard- 
less barley  in  the  spring.  The 
barley  grows  more  rapidly 
than  the  alfalfa,  acting  as  a  protector  to  the  delicate 
alfalfa  plants  against  the  extreme  heat  of  the  summer 
and  occupying  the  ground  so  that  early  growing  weeds 
will  be  crowded  out.  When  the  barley  is  in  the  milk 
stage,  it  is  cut  for  hay,  and  the  alfalfa  plants  then  grow 
thickly  in  the  stubble. 

Mixed  Grasses.  —  A  few  grasses  thrive  best  when 
planted  alone.  Among  these  are  alfalfa  and  western 
rye  grass.  Timothy  is  often  grown  alone  because  of 


FIG.  1 1 6.  — Blue  Grass. 


228 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


its  high  feeding  value  for  horses,  due  to  its  composition 
and  cleanliness,  and  because  it  stands  shipping  well,  but 

commonly  it  is 
mixed  with  red 
clover  or  alsike 
clover.  It  is  a 
common  practice 
in  the  north  to  mix 
red  clover  seed  and 
timothy  seed  and 
sow  them  with  one 
of  the  small  grains, 
wheat,oats,  or  bar- 
ley. The  clover 
grows  quickly  after 
the  cereal  crop  is 
removed,  often 
making  fine  fall 
pasturage.  The 
next  spring,  if  con- 
ditions are  favor- 
able, the  clover 
grows  rankly  over 
the  entire  field. 
After  the  clover  is 
harvested,  the 
timothy  plants 
that  have  been 
held  in  check  by 
the  rapid  grow- 
ing clover  come  forward  and  make  the  hay  crop  for  the 
next  year.  Some  clover  may  be  grown  with  the  timo- 
thy, but  as  a  rule  the  red  clover  is  a  biennial  and  its 


FIG.  117.  —  Millet. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


229 


roots  die  at  the  end  of  the  second  year.     With  one 

seeding  and  one  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  a  cereal 

crop,  one  or  more     _ 

clover   crops,   and 

one  or  more  timo- 

thy crops  may  be 

harvested. 

There  are  three 
reasons  for  sowing 
hay  in  mixtures  : 
I.  greater  crop  pro- 
duction; 2.  wider 
adaptation  of  the 
mixed  crop  for 
feeding,  owing  to 
a  combination  of 
the  qualities  of 
the  components  ; 
3.  easier  curing  of 


FIG.  118.  —  Red  Clover. 

That   the   yield 

will  be  greater  from  a  mixed  seed  can  be  seen  when  we 
consider  that  the  different  plants,  having  different  depths 
of  rootage,  will  occupy  the  soil  more  fully  than  either 
growing  alone.  Timothy  is  especially  good  for  horses, 
clover  for  sheep  and  cattle.  The  mixture  of  the  two 
gives  a  hay  that  is  adapted  for  general  farm  feeding. 
The  mixed  grasses  do  not  pack  so  closely  when  fresh 
cut,  thus  allowing  the  air  to  circulate  in  the  bunched 
grass  to  produce  a  rapid  curing. 

There  are  other  mixtures  than  the  one  mentioned 
above,  the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  of  different  areas 
determining  what  mixture  will  produce  the  best  hay. 


230  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

Legumes.  -  -  The  great  value  of  legumes  in  nitrogen 
fixation  has  been  discussed  on  pages  113-114,  but  some 
of  them  have  high  additional  value  as  crops,  clover, 
alfalfa,  and  cow-peas  being  those  that  produce  large 
quantities  of  good  hay.  The  legumes  are  rich  in  pro- 
tein, and  protein  is  the  food  substance  that  makes 
muscle  and  milk;  hence  this  substance  in  combination 
with  those  that  produce  heat  and  energy  forms  the 
food  of  a  perfectly  nourished  animal. 

Clover.  —  Red  clover  will  grow  on  a  poorer  soil  than 
timothy,  but  its  best  growth  comes  from  a  fertile  soil 
rich  in  lime.  It  is  extensively  grown  in  northern  and 
eastern  parts  of  the  United  States,  where  it  usually 
furnishes  two  crops  a  season.  It  should  be  harvested 
soon  after  the  blossoms  begin  to  turn  brown,  in  order 
not  to  lose  the  leaves,  which  drop  off  when  the  plant 
becomes  dry.  Clover  hay  is  dusty  when  not  very  care- 
fully made,  and  is,  therefore,  not  so  good  for  horses, 
but  it  makes  excellent  roughage  (coarse  food)  for  sheep, 
cows,  and  young  stock. 

Alsike  clover  is  adapted  for  growing  on  wet  soils,  and 
mixed  with  timothy  it  makes  a  better  balanced  and 
more  palatable  hay  for  horses  than  timothy  alone.  It 
is  not  a  hairy  plant  as  red  clover  is,  and  is  therefore 
freer  from  dust. 

Alfalfa.  —  Experiments  have  demonstrated  that  this 
legume,  far  from  being  confined  to  the  western  states 
for  its  productive  area,  can  be  grown  successfully  in 
every  state  in  the  Union.  In  the  warmer  regions  it 
will,  of  course,  grow  more  crops  a  year,  but  almost 
every  part  of  the  country  can  grow  at  least  two  crops. 

Alfalfa  prefers  a  deep,  porous,  somewhat  alkaline 
soil,  well  stored  with  minerals,  especially  limestone, 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


231 


but  it  will  yield  heavily  on  stiff,  limy  clays  if  well  under- 
drained  and  manured,  also  on  sand  if  well  fertilized. 
In  short,  the  plant 
will  grow  in  al- 
most any  soil  that 
is  treated  to  bring 
about  the  condi- 
tions it  likes,  but 
because  of  its  deep 
rootage,  alfalfa  will 
not  grow  well  on  a 
shallow  soil. 

Advantages  of 
Alfalfa.  --  i.  It 
roots  deeply  in  the 
soil.  This  enables 
it  to  endure  drought 
much  better  than 
other  plants,  and 
gives  it  a  great 
extent  of  feeding 

.  FIG.  119.  — Alfalfa. 

ground. 

2.  It  is  a  vigorous  plant,  therefore  can  begin  to  grow 
early  in  the  spring.     It  continues  growing  throughout 
the  whole   season.     The   first   crop  is  ready  to  be  cut 
early  in  June,  and  a  month  later  the  second  crop  awaits 
the  mower. 

3.  It  is  richer  in  food  elements   and  more  palatable 
than  the  other  forage  crops  the  farmer  grows. 

Inoculation  of  Alfalfa.  —  Sometimes  farmers  seem 
to  have  the  right  kind  of  soil  for  alfalfa,  and  yet  the 
first  crop  is  a  complete  failure.  This  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  soil  has  not  been  inoculated,  that  is, 


232  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

bacteria  without  which  the  plant  cannot  thrive  are 
absent  from  the  soil.  One  way  to  inoculate  the  soil 
is  to  scatter  broadcast  over  the  field  some  soil  from 
a  successful  old  alfalfa  field.  If  this  is  not  practicable, 
bacteria  cultures  may  be  obtained  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  the  seed  inoculated. 

Legumes  as  Forage  Crops.  -  -  There  are  other  legumes 
that,  while  not  well  fitted  for  hay  because  of  being 
annuals,  are  yet  exceedingly  valuable  for  forage  crops ; 
that  is,  as  green  food  for  stock.  Crimson  clover  is  one 
of  these  which  may  be  soiled ;  that  is,  fed  green,  or  cut 
and  dried  and  used  for  early  feeding.  Vetch,  especially 
winter  vetch,  when  sown  with  rye  or  wheat,  is  valuable 
for  forage,  as  is  also  the  field  pea  when  sown  with  oats. 
The  latter  is  especially  good  for  milch  cows  if  soiled  and 
used  for  sheep  when  cured.  The  soy  (soja)  bean  may 
be  profitably  used  either  for  soiling  or  silage,  especially 
in  the  south.  In  some  western  states  it  is  fed  on  the 
land  to  hogs  and  sheep. 

VEGETABLES  AND  FRUITS 

Under  the  general  name  of  vegetables  are  included 
those  plants  used  for  culinary  purposes  which  are  culti- 
vated in  the  gardens.  They  may  be  conveniently 
classified,  according  to  the  part  of  the  plant  used,  into 
tuber,  bulb,  root,  seed,  and  leaf  plants. 

Tubers. — A  tuber  is  an  underground  stem.  (See 
page  131.)  The  only  tuber  that  is  used  for  human  food 
in  this  country  is  the  common  potato.  The  Jerusalem 
artichoke  is  a  tuber  much  used  as  a  vegetable  food  in 
some  countries,  but  it  has  never  found  great  favor  in 
the  United  States. 

The    Potato.  —  This    vegetable,    whether    grown    in 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  233 

the  garden  for  family  use  or  in  fields  for  the  market, 
requires  deep  preparatory  spring  plowing  of  the  soil, 
especially  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  not  great. 
The  soil  which  the  potato  likes  best  is  a  sandy  loam. 


FIG.  1 20.  —  Potatoes. 
The  lines  show  how  potatoes  may  be  cut  for  planting. 

Potatoes  which  follow  alfalfa  or  clover  crops  in  rotation 
show  the  largest  yields. 

Tubers  are  propagated  by  means  of  the  buds  (eyes) ; 
before  planting,  potatoes  are  cut  into  pieces,  each  hav- 
ing two  or  more  buds.  Experiments  do  not  show  that 
the  size  of  the  original  seed  potato  affects  the  crop,  but 
the  type  does ;  that  is,  buds  of  small  potatoes  will  pro- 
duce as  large  potatoes  as  those  from  large  ones,  but 
buds  from  deformed,  rough,  imperfect  tubers  will  not 
bring  satisfactory  results.  As  a  rule,  the  most  success- 
ful potato  growers  do  not  care  how  small  a  seed  potato 
is,  providing  it  is  perfect  in  form  and  true  to  type. 

If  potatoes  that  are  to  be  planted  are  well  washed  and 
kept  in  a  lighted  room  at  a  temperature  of  45  degrees 
to  70  degrees  for  five  or  six  weeks  before  planting,  the 
sprouts  will  begin  to  grow.  If  then  they  are  cut  into 
pieces  two  or  three  days  before  planting,  and  placed 
m  shallow  piles  so  that  they  will  not  become  heated, 


234  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

the  cut  surface  will  become  somewhat  dried,  and  when 
planted  the  seed  will  not  be  so  apt  to  rot. 

Cultivation  should  closely  follow  planting.  It  should 
follow  each  heavy  rainfall  as  soon  as  possible,  so  that 
the  weeds  may  not  get  a  start.  Potatoes  are  culti- 
vated from  three  to  five  times,  according  to  the  season 
and  the  rainfall,  until  the  vines  so  fill  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  rows  that  it  is  no  longer  practicable  to  go 
through  them  with  the  cultivator  or  team.  If  the 
potato  field  is  not  kept  free  from  weeds  and  a  good  sur- 
face mulch  is  not  maintained,  no  great  yield  of  the  crop 
need  be  expected, 

In  regions  where  irrigation  is  necessary,  water  is 
turned  on  whenever  conditions  seem  to  require  it, 
whether  to  sprout  the  seed  or  to  supply  moisture  neces- 
sary for  steadily  continued  growth.  After  the  use  of 
water  has  been  begun,  the  soil  should  never  be  allowed 
to  become  parched  and  dry  to  the  end  of  the  growing 
season.  Experience  has  shown  that  a  field  of  potatoes 
having  once  been  stimulated  by  the  artificial  application 
of  water  must  be  watered  frequently  to  avoid  a  set- 
back in  growth,  for  a  check  in  the  growth  of  either 
a  plant  or  a  tuber  after  once  irrigated  is  more  injurious 
than  if  the  plant  had  lacked  sufficient  moisture  con- 
tinuously. 

When  the  tops  of  the  potato  vines  are  dead,  the  crop 
is  ready  to  harvest.  In  these  days  of  farm  machinery 
field  potatoes,  when  grown  on  a  commercial  scale,  are 
seldom  dug  by  hand,  because  of  the  great  expense  of 
hand  labor.  One  man  with  two  good  teams  can  easily 
dig  six  acres  a  day  with  a  potato  digger  and  with  less 
injury  to  the  tubers  than  results  from  ordinary  hand 
digging.  The  soil  should  not  be  wet  when  potatoes  are 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


235 


to  be  dug,  either  in  the  field  or  garden,  as  too  much  of 
it  will  adhere  to  the  tubers.  They  should  be  left  on 
the  ground  only  long  enough  to  dry  the  surface  thor- 
oughly and  should  then  be  stored  in  dry,  cool  cellars 
in  bins  which  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

Maine  leads  the  other  states  in  the  average  yield  of 
potatoes  an  acre,  her  crops  showing  an  average  of  175 


FIG.  121.  —  Digging  Potatoes. 

bushels,  but  Wyoming,  California,  and  Florida  are  not 
far  behind.  In  regions  where  the  farmer's  entire  de- 
pendence for  moisture  is  the  rainfall,  the  average  yield 
for  two  successive  years  may  vary  widely.  For  in- 
stance, in  1904  Wisconsin's  average  potato  crop  an  acre 
was  126  bushels,  which  dropped  to  68  bushels,  or  only 
about  half  the  yield  in  1905,  a  dry  year.  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  Illinois,  and  Nebraska  showed  a  corre- 
sponding decrease. 


236  ECONOMIC  PLANTS 

Varieties  of  Potatoes. — There  are  many  varieties 
of  potatoes  used  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  New 
varieties  are  being  originated  every  year,  and  many  of 
the  old  varieties  are  discarded  in  some  sections  because 
they  have  ceased  to  yield  well. 

One  of  the  most  widely  known  varieties  is  The  Rural 
New  Yorker  No.  2,  also  called  Rural.  It  is  a  medium 
large,  flattened,  short,  elliptical,  white  tuber  with  an 
even  surface  and  rather  few,  shallow  eyes.  It  is  a  late 
variety.  Very  similar  to  it  are  the  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
and  Carmen  No.  3. 

The  Cobbler  potatoes,  or  Cobblers,  are  very  often 
quoted  in  the  markets.  They  are  a  white,  roundish 
potato  with  eyes  medium  in  number  and  fairly  shallow. 
This  is  a  very  early  variety. 

Eureka  Extra  Early,  Noroton  Beauty,  and  Red  Bliss 
Triumph  are  somewhat  similar  to  the  Cobblers. 

The  Early  Ohio  is  an  elliptical,  plump  variety.  The 
eyes  are  rather  numerous  and  fairly  deep.  It  is  a  stand- 
ard, early  variety,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
for  general  planting. 

The  Burbank  and  Pingree  potatoes  are  rather  long, 
white  potatoes,  and  are  among  the  most  popular  of  the 
late  varieties. 

The  Pearl,  also  called  the  Wisconsin  Peerless  and  the 
White  Victor,  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  for  large 
yields.  It  is  a  medium  early,  white,  netted,  somewhat 
flattened,  round  to  oval  potato. 

Roots.  --The  common  garden  root  crops  are  turnips, 
rutabagas  (Swedish  turnips),  carrots,  parsnips,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  beets.  Some  of  these,  namely  turnips, 
rutabagas,  and  carrots,  are  also  grown  for  forage  crops 
in  Europe,  but  not  so  much  in  this  country. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  237 

Root  crops  in  general  require  a  rich,  mellow  loam,  well 
supplied  with  potash,  lime,  and  nitrogen.  This  initial 
fertility  must  be  supplemented  by  good  drainage  and 
thorough  cultivation,  or  a  poor  growth  will  result. 

The  root  crops  are  biennials  ;  that  is,  the  plants  store 
up  a  rich  stock  of  food  in  the  root  the  first  year,  which 
is  used  the  following  year  in  developing  seed  stalk 
and  seed.  Gathered  the  first  year,  the  roots  form  a 
palatable  food  both  for  man  and  beast. 

The  common  white,  or  English,  turnip  is  so  rapid  a 
grower  that  it  is  often  planted  following  early  potatoes 
or  peas,  but  it  does  not  keep  well.  It  is  valuable  as  a 
forage  crop  for  sheep.  Rutabagas  are  larger  and  hardier 
than  the  common  turnip.  They  are  also  used  for  feed- 
ing stock. 

Carrots  are  grown  more  extensively  as  a  food  for 
horses  than  as  a  vegetable  for  table  use,  but  still  few 
farm  gardens  are  thought  complete  without  at  least 
a  row  of  these  roots.  The  plants  are  tiny  at  first  and 
very  slow  growers,  hence  their  productive  cost  is  com- 
paratively large.  To  raise  good  carrots  a  light,  mellow, 
deep  soil  is  required,  thoroughly  free  from  weeds. 

Parsnips  thrive  in  the  same  kind  of  soil  that  carrots 
do.  Having  a  deep  rootage  system,  the  plant  is  a  deep 
feeder  and  is  proportionately  hard  to  harvest.  This 
probably  prevents  its  wide  use  as  a  stock  food,  although 
it  has  been  found  to  be  especially  good  for  milch  cows, 
increasing  both  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the 
milk. 

The  sweet  potato  requires  a  long,  hot  season  and  a  thin, 
loamy  soil,  not  very  rich.  The  sweet  potatoes  are  laid 
close  together  in  a  bed  in  early  spring,  where  sprouts 
and  roots  soon  form.  When  the  former  are  a  few 


'38 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


inches  above  the  ground,  they  and  their  roots  are  sepa- 
rated.from  the  sweet  potato  and  set  out  in  the  field  or 
garden,  two  feet  apart  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  A  sec- 
ond growth  of  sprouts  will  soon  spring  from  the  same 
sweet  potatoes,  and  these  are  also  transplanted.  The 
sets  in  the  field  are  also  cut  and  transplanted  as  soon 
as  the  vines  have  grown  to  be  about  twelve  inches 
long,  a  small  number  of  sweet  potatoes  thus  serving  to 
stock  a  considerable  area.  Sweet  potatoes  require  the 
same  careful  cultivation,  manuring,  and  clean  soil  that 
potatoes  need.  Good  crops  show  a  yield  from  200  to 
300  bushels  an  acre. 

Beets  are  of  two  varieties,  the  mangel-wurzel  and 
the  sugar  beet.  The  former  are  used  largely  for  stock 
food.  As  they  require  a  rich  loam,  manure  must  be 


FIG.  122.  —  Mangel-wurzels. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  239 

freely  applied.  Potash  seems  to  have  a  favorable  in- 
fluence on  the  crop  if  applied  in  the  fall  so  that  it  shall 
have  worked  deeply  into  the  soil.  Mangels  must  be 
thinned  out  while  young,  so  that  they  may  have  room  to 
grow.  Sugar  beets  are  grown  for  use  on  the  table,  but 
the  development  of  the  beet  sugar  industry  in  the 
United  States  has  made  such  rapid  progress  in  the  past 
fifteen  years  as  to  make  the  garden  crop  of  comparative 
insignificance.  For  use  as  a  vegetable  the  seeds  of  this 
beet  should  be  planted  in  rows  one  foot  apart,  one  inch 
apart  in  the  row,  and  one  inch  deep.  When  the  plants 
are  well  up,  thin  to  four  inches  space  between  them. 

Note.  —  The  so-called  beet  seed  is  really  not  a  single  seed,  but  a 
collection  of  three  seeds,  more  properly  called  beet  fruit.  Efforts  to 
develop  a  beet  that  shall  produce  fruit  with  but  one  fertile  seed  is 
meeting  with  some  success. 

Bulbs. --The  onion  is  the  only  bulb  that  is  of  any 
importance  as  a  vegetable. 

The  onion  grows  well  in  a  moderately  light  loam. 
A  clean  soil  for  planting  is  necessary  if  the  cost  of  culti- 
vation be  kept  at  a  reasonable  figure.  Onions  may  suc- 
ceed themselves  on  the  same  soil  for  successive  years 
with  less  evil  results  than  most  other  crops.  If  grown  in 
a  rotation  system,  they  follow  potatoes  or  carrots  well. 
Very  careful  preparation  of  the  soil  followed  by  cultiva- 
tion and  heavy  manuring  or  fertilizing  with  plenty  of 
lime  bring  a  yield  from  800  to  1000  bushels  an  acre,  a 
crop  that  is  usually  quite  profitable.  Hand  labor  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  successful  weeding,  but  such 
a  large  yield  from  a  small  area  is  secured  as  to  make 
the  culture  pay.  Onions  are  harvested  by  pulling  as 
soon  as  the  tops  have  fallen  over  and  have  begun  to 


24O 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


die.  The  bulbs  must  lie  on  the  ground  until  the  tops 
are  entirely  dead.  Experts  differ  as  to  the  advisability 
of  removing  the  dead  tops  before  storing  the  bulbs, 
but  in  either  case  they  must  be  kept  in  dry,  cool  places 
where  the  air  can  circulate  freely. 


FIG.  123.  —  Harvesting  Onions. 

The  onion  is  very  nutritious,  containing  a  large  quan- 
tity of  nitrogenous  matter  and  sugar  with  an  acrid 
volatile  oil  resembling  oil  of  garlic.  This  oil  is  dissi- 
pated in  boiling  so  that  boiled  onions  are  much  milder 
than  raw  ones.  In  warm  countries  this  vegetable  is 
of  a  more  delicate  flavor  than  in  temperate  regions.  In 
Spain  and  Portugal  a  raw  onion  is  often  eaten  like  an 
apple,  and  with  a  piece  of  bread  often  forms  the  dinner 
of  a  working  man.  Bermuda  and  Spanish  onions  are 
among  the  choicest  varieties. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  241 

In  recent  years  the  culture  of  onions  for  the  market 
has  often  been  through  seeds  sown  in  hot  beds  and 
transplanted  when  the  young  plants  are  three  or  four 
inches  high,  this  method  making  it  possible  to  grow 
some  of  the  more  delicate  imported  varieties. 

If  onion  seed  are  planted  so  thickly  in  a  poorly  fer- 
tilized bed  that  the  plants  fail  to  make  more  than  a 
start  in  growth,  a  small  bulb  is  formed  called  an  onion 
set.  Onion  sets  are  planted  for  early  young  onions  in 
the  spring.  In  some  varieties  sets  are  also  formed  at 
the  tops  of  onions  instead  of  seeds. 

Seed  Vegetables. — The  garden  vegetables  grown 
especially  for  their  seeds  are  the  two  legumes,  the 
pea  and  the  bean.  Good  corn  soil  is  good  pea  and 
bean  soil ;  it  does  not  need  extensive  manuring.  Very 
poor  soil  will  often  produce  a  fair  crop,  and  such  soils 
are  always  improved  by  growing  these  legumes,  but  to 
produce  a  good  crop  may  require  a  fertilizer  contain- 
ing phosphorus,  potash,  and  lime.  The  pea  is  a  climb- 
ing annual,  and  the  garden  variety  usually  requires 
stakes  or  strings  for  support,  but  there  are  dwarf  kinds 
that  succeed  very  well  without  stakes.  They  are  sown 
in  rows  from  two  to  three  feet  apart. 

Peas  and  beans  for  canning  are  grown  in  areas  ad- 
jacent to  factories,  the  whole  plant  being  harvested  and 
then  passed  through  a  viner,  either  on  the  farm  or  at 
the  factory. 

Leaf  Vegetables.  -  -  The  callage  plant  stores  food 
in  its  leaves,  which  becoming  thickened,  and  arranged 
in  overlapping  layers  about  a  center  form  a  head 
which  furnishes  a  food  for  table  use  or  a  valuable 
forage  crop.  Cabbage  seed  for  the  garden  or  market 
crop  is  usually  planted  in  a  hotbed,  and  the  young 

M.  &  H.  AG.  —  l6 


242  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

plants  later  set  out  in  rows  in  deep,  rich,  moderately 
heavy  loam  with  a  good  moisture-holding  capacity. 
Lime  is  excellent  for  the  growth  of  this  vegetable,  but, 
when  it  is  absent,  suitable  manuring  will  bring  large 
returns.  Disease  is  sure  to  attack  the  plant  if  the  soil 
is  not  well  drained  and  rotation  practiced,  for  cabbage 
cannot  profitably  succeed  itself  or  any  other  member  of 
its  own  family,  such  as  common  turnips,  rutabagas,  or 
cauliflower.  Liberal  quantities  of  other  than  hog  ma- 
nure are  beneficial  if  plowed  in  either  in  the  fall  or  early 
spring.  In  order  to  avoid  the  ravages  of  insects,  among 
which  the  cabbage  has  many  enemies,  cabbage  must  be 
kept  constantly  growing  by  frequent  cultivation.  Cab- 
bage may  be  left  in  the  open  until  the  temperature  is 
only  a  little  above  the  freezing  point,  and  when  har- 
vested must  be  put  in  a  cool,  dry  place  to  prevent 
decay,  either  in  a  cellar  or  in  shallow  ground  pits. 

Fruits.  -  -  The  fruit  of  the  plant  is  the  ripened  ovary, 
or  seed  vessel,  with  its  contents  and  whatever  parts  are 
consolidated  with  it.  A  general  classification  into  tree 
fruits  and  small  fruits  will  be  found  as  convenient  as 
any,  the  latter  including  all  fruits  grown  on  small 
shrubs,  low  plants,  and  recumbent  or  climbing  vines. 
The  common  tree  fruits  of  the  temperate  regions  are 
the  apple,  pear,  peach,  plum,  and  cherry;  of  warmer 
regions,  the  citrus  fruits,  orange,  lemon,  and  grape- 
fruit. The  common  small  fruits  are  the  strawberry, 
raspberry,  blackberry,  the  currant,  the  grape,  the  to- 
mato, and  the  melons. 

Nuts  are  fruits  with  a  hardened  outer  covering,  or 
shell.  Few  farmers  pay  any  attention  to  their  culture 
except  in  the  warmer  regions  where  peanuts,  almonds, 
pecans,  and  the  like  are  raised. 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  243 

Growing  a  Fruit  Tree.  —  When  we  plant  a  seed  of  a 
certain  variety  of  plant,  we  naturally  expect  that  seed 
to  produce  a  plant  of  the  same  variety,  but  experiments 
have  proved  that  in  the  case  of  the  tree  fruits,  at  least, 
planting  the  seed  of  a  given  variety  may  produce  a  tree 
that  bears  fruit  of  an  entirely  different  variety.  More 
than  likely  the  fruit  of  an  apple  seed  will  simply  be 
an  inferior  variety,  of  no  value  at  all  as  a  fruit. 
Trees  grown  from  seeds  are  called  seedlings.  Orchard- 
ists  who  are  trying  to  develop  new  and  improved  va- 
rieties grow  a  great  number  of  seedlings  in  the  hope 
that  out  of  the  large  number  there  may  be  found  one  or 
more  trees  bearing  fruit  that  is  an  improvement  over 
the  varieties  now  in  existence.  It  is  through  this  pro- 
cess that  the  existing  varieties  were  found. 

Tree  fruits  are  ordinarily  grown  on  land  set  aside  for 
that  purpose,  called  orchards.  The  small  fruits  are 
commonly  cultivated  in  gardens. 

Location  of  an  Orchard.  —  In  a  hilly  country  or- 
chards are  planted  on  all  sides  of  the  hills,  but  in  the 
higher  latitudes  the  north  side  of  hills  is  preferred,  as 
that  slope  is  not  subject  to  so  many  variations  in  tem- 
perature. A  location  should  be  secured  that  is  not 
subject  to  frosts  during  the  growing  season.  Orchards 
should  not  be  planted  in  hollows  or  closed  valleys  be- 
cause of  lack  of  cold  air  drainage.  As  the  warm  air 
rises  and  the  cold  air  descends,  the  cold  air  may  be 
pocketed  in  the  hollow  unless  there  is  a  still  lower 
hollow  or  valley  that  may  drain  out  the  cold  air. 

Proximity  to  a  body  of  water  has  a  tendency  to 
equalize  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  land  and 
will  often  avert  untimely  frosts. 

Arrangement  of  Trees.  --The  most  common  method 


244 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


of  setting  out  orchard  trees  is  to  set  them  in  squares. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  best  system  with  reference 

to  the  use  of  land. 
If  the  roots  and 
branches  spread  out 
uniformly  from  the 
point  of  planting, 
it  is  evident  from 
observing  Figure 
124  that  the  land 
in  the  center  of  the 
square  outside  of 
the  circles  is  wasted. 
Some  have  at- 
tempted to  use  this 
waste  land  by 
FlG-  I24'  planting  a  tree  in 

the  center  of  each  square.     When  this  is  done,  the  trees 

are    too    crowded, 

as     is     shown    by 

the    overlapping 

of    the    circles    in 

Figure  125. 

The     hexagonal 

system  (Fig.   126) 

uses  the  land  more 

economically.  The 

trees    are    distrib- 
uted   evenly   over 

the  area,  and  there 

remains  but  10  per 

cent    of    unused 

land.  FIG.  125. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


245 


If  trees  are  planted  thirty  feet  apart,  the  square  system 
give  forty-eight  trees  to  the  acre,  while  the  hexag- 
onal system  allows 
fifty-five  trees  to 
the  acre. 

Planting  an  Or- 
chard. —  Few  farm- 
ers raise  apples  or 
other  tree  fruits 
from  the  seed. 
They  depend  in- 
stead upon  the 
nurseryman  to  sup- 
ply them  with  trees 
from  two  to  three 
years  old.  Sym- 
metrical trees  with 
roots  in  good  con- 
dition should  be  se- 
lected, but  perfect  roots  are  more  important  than  sym- 
metry, for  pruning  can  remedy  some  defects  in  shape. 
Horticulturists  are  recommending  less  top  and  more 
roots  on  transplanted  trees,  on  the  principle  that  roots 
can  grow  a  top,  but  a  top  can  never  do  the  work  of 
roots  in  the  growth  of  the  tree. 

Orchard  land  should  be  well  plowed  and  harrowed 
before  being  planted,  and  well  tilled  afterward. 
Farmers  have  learned  that  an  orchard  must  not  be 
left  to  take  care  of  itself. 

The  holes  for  planting  should  always  be  greater  in 
diameter  than  the  spread  of  the  roots,  so  that  the  root 
tips  need  not  be  coiled  or  doubled  back. 

The  soil  should    be  closely  packed  under  and  about 


FIG.  126. 


246 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


the  roots  and  left  loose  on  the  surface  so  that  moisture 
may  readily  penetrate  to  the  roots.  Trees  should  be 
set  far  enough  apart  so  that  each  tree  may  receive  the 
necessary  soil  space  for  the  moisture  needed,  and  space 


FIG.  127.  —  Planting  Fruit  Trees. 

The  notched  board  placed  over  the  hole  dug  to  receive  the  tree  enables  the  planter  to  keep 
the  trees  exactly  in  line  when  set. 

for  the  branches  so  that  it  may  not  be  deprived  of  suffi- 
cient sunshine. 

Note.  —  A  method  of  planting  advocated  by  H.  M.  Stringfellovv 
of  Texas  is  at  variance  with  the  accepted  practice,  but  under  many 
conditions  good  results  are  secured.  The  method  consists  of  the 
following  points  : 

1.  Prune  both  top  and  root  very   closely  so   that   the   tree  looks 
much  like  a  walking  stick. 

2.  Plant  in  small  holes  with  the  soil  packed  and  jammed  hard  about 
the  roots. 

3.  Prune  little,  if  any,  till  the  tree  comes  into  bearing. 

4.  After  the  tree  comes  into  bearing,  do  not  cultivate,  but  mulch  by 
cutting  such  grass  and  weeds  as  grow  about  the  trees  and  piling  it  over 
the  roots  thickly.     Manure  and  straw  may  also  be  hauled  on  for  mulching. 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


247 


Care  of  an  Or- 
chard. --  Crops 
in  the  Orchard. 
The  old  practice 
of  sowing  some 
other  crop  in  the 
orchard  or  letting 
the  ground  grow 
up  to  grass  or 
weeds  is  seldom 
followed  by  suc- 
cessful fruit  grow- 
ers. It  is  true 
that  before  the 


FIGS.  128,  129.  —  A  Well- 
pruned  Orchard  (above) ; 
an  Unpruned  Orchard 
(below). 


trees  have  an  ex- 
tended rootage, 
that  is,  while  they 
are  from  two  to 
five  years  old,  low- 
growing  crops  like 
potatoes  and  cab- 
bage, or  small  fruit 
like  tomatoes,  may 
be  raised  in  the 
orchard  with  no 


248  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

damage  to  the  trees,  if  not  planted  too  near  them. 
Grass  and  weeds  are  injurious  to  the  young  orchard, 
except,  perhaps,  a  crop  of  clover  or  soy  beans,  sowed 
late  in  the  summer  as  a  cover  crop  and  plowed  under  in 
the  spring.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  roots. 

Note.  —  Although  the  largest  number  of  successful  orchardists 
cultivate  their  orchards  and  keep  all  growth  of  grass  or  weeds  out  of 
the  orchard  during  the  summer,  some  have  achieved  notable  success  by 
allowing  sod  to  form  and  doing  no  cultivation.  To  conserve  the 
moisture  and  to  fertilize  the  trees  a  heavy  mulch  of  hay,  straw,  or 
weeds  is  placed  about  the  trees  and  is  kept  there  at  a  depth  of  not  less 
than  four  inches.  The  mulch  should  be  spread  out  as  far  as  the 
branches  extend. 

Pruning.  Judicious  pruning  is  important  for  six 
reasons:  I.  It  checks  growth  and  this  increases  fruit- 
fulness.  2.  By  thinning  the  fruit,  thus  reducing  the 
quantity  of  the  fruit  allowed  to  be  borne  by  the  tree  to 
the  capacity  of  the  tree,  the  quality  of  the  product  is 
improved.  3.  It  aids  in  controlling  some  of  the  most 
dreaded  plant  diseases.  4.  It  makes  cultivation  easier 
by  removing  the  branches  near  the  ground.  5.  It  al- 
lows the  sunlight  to  get  at  the  fruit,  giving  a  better  color 
to  it.  6.  It  regulates  the  head  of  the  tree  so  that  har- 
vesting the  fruit  is  made  easier. 

Root  and  top  pruning,  when  transplanting  takes 
place,  is  also  practiced,  the  mutilated  and  dead  root 
branches  of  the  sapling  being  removed,  and  most,  if  not 
all,  of  the  top.  Care  must  be  taken  in  all  pruning, 
no  matter  when  done  or  whether  to  roots  or  top,  that 
a  smooth,  clean  surface  is  left,  or  injury  to  the  tree 
may  follow. 

Branches  of  considerable  size  should  be  cut  close  to 
the  trunk  or  to  the  larger  branch  from  which  they  grow, 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS  249 

so  that  no  stubs  are  left.  The  cut  should  be  made  with 
a  fine-toothed  saw,  and  the  cut  on  the  tree  should  be 
covered  with  grafting  wax  to  prevent  rotting  and  to 
encourage  healing  of  the  wound. 

To  prevent  stripping  the  bark  from  the  tree,  the 
branch  should  be  sawed  from  the  under  side  part  way 
through  the  branch  first,  then  completed  by  sawing  from 
the  upper  side. 

Smaller  branches  may  be  pruned  with  a  sharp  knife, 
cutting  upward. 

Standing  trees  which  run  to  branches  and  foliage 
instead  of  flowers  and  fruit  are  sometimes  root-pruned 
to  encourage  bud  formation.  This  is  done  by  digging 
a  circular  trench  around  the  tree  from  three  to  six 
feet  from  the  tree  trunk,  cutting  off  all  the  roots  en- 
countered. The  soil  is  then  returned  to  the  trench  and 
packed  firmly. 

Pruning  for  Fruitf ulness.  -  -  The  chief  object  in 
pruning  orchard  trees  that  are  in  bearing  is  to  increase 
the  production  of  the  best  grades  of  fruit.  There  are 
certain  principles  that  should  be  observed  if  the  or- 
chardist  wishes  to  accomplish  this  end  : 

1.  The  fruiting  habit  of  the  species  or  variety  should 
be  studied  and  thoroughly  understood  before  pruning 
is  attempted.     He  should  know  where  the  fruit  buds 
grow  and  when  they  are  formed. 

2.  Pruning  should  stimulate  the  normal   growth    of 
fruit  buds   well   distributed   over  the  branches. 

3.  Since  the  parts  of    the  tree  that  grow  the   most 
rapidly  usually  produce  the  least  fruit,  pruning  should 
check  the  rapid  growth  of  parts  that  are  expected  to 
bear  fruit  buds. 

4.  Since  the  rapid  growth  of  any  particular  part  of 


250  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

a  tree  depends  largely  on  the  amount  of  water  it  re- 
ceives from  the  roots,  and  since  frequent  branching 
diverts  the  flow  of  sap,  it  follows  that  the  part  of  the 
tree  that  is  divided  by  much  branching  is  most  likely 
to  produce  fruit  buds.  Long,  unbranched  sprouts 
(except  in  some  cases  the  leader)  should  be  cut  back. 
Branches  should  be  thinned  sufficiently  to  admit  light 
and  air. 

5.  Some  new  wood  should  be  allowed  to  grow  each 
year  to  produce  a  new  crop  of  buds,  but  a  small  amount 
of  growth  upon  all  the  branches  should  be  the  aim. 

Time  of  Pruning.  —  If  pruning  is  not  too  severe  it 
may  be  done  at  any  time.  It  is  better,  however,  to 
prune  systematically  twice  each  year.  The  largest 
part  of  the  pruning  should  be  done  while  the  tree  is 
dormant  in  the  winter  or  in  the  early  spring  before  the 
sap  begins  to  flow.  Summer  pruning  should  be  per- 
formed before  the  shoots  are  covered  with  foliage.  In 
the  spring  very  often  a  number  of  sprouts  will  shoot  out 
from  the  trunk  or  from  the  large  branches.  On  the 
mature  tree  these  should  be  rubbed  off  as  soon  as  dis- 
covered. Other  shoots  that  are  not  located  favorably 
may  at  this  time  be  cut  off.  New  growths  that  are 
properly  placed  and  are  growing  in  the  right  direction 
may  be  growing  too  long.  Such  should  be  pinched 
back  to  retard  their  growth. 

Note.  —  The  older  method  of  trimming  trees  allowed  the  heads  to 
form  high  in  the  air.  The  trunk  was  long  enough  to  enable  horse 
cultivation  to  come  close  to  the  tree  without  interference  with  the 
lower  branches.  The  disadvantage  of  this  method  is  that  the  cost  of 
harvesting  the  fruit  is  much  greater  than  if  the  head  were  closer  to  the 
ground,  and  the  fruit  that  falls  from  the  high  trees  to  the  ground  5h 
bruised  and  usually  spoiled.  The  later  method  of  trimming  produces 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


251 


a  low-headed  tree  reducing  the  cost  of  harvesting  and  making  the  in- 
jury to  windfalls  much  less.  The  low-headed  trees  are  also  more 
economically  and  thoroughly  sprayed. 

The  Apple.  —  Because  the  apple  tree  is  hardy,  bears 
well,  has  many  varieties,  both  early  and  late,  and  the 
fruit  bears  shipment 
well,  the  apple  is  the 
cheapest  and  most 
widely  known  of  the 
temperate  fruits.  It 
thrives  in  nearly  all 
of  the  northern 
states. 

The  apple  likes 
a  rich  clay  loam 
stocked  with  lime, 
but  it  does  well  on 
a  variety  of  soils  if 
well  cared  for.  Sap- 
lings two  or  three 
years  old  are  gen- 
erally considered 
best  for  planting. 
They  will  produce 
fruit  in  from  two  to 
ten  years,  depending  upon  the  variety.  The  time  of 
maturing  and  the  keeping  quality  depend  upon  the 
variety  of  apple  and  the  climate  in  which  it  is  grown. 
Winter  apples  of  the  northern  states  are  early  autumn 
apples  when  grown  in  Georgia.  Many  excellent  apples 
in  one  part  of  the  country  have  little  value  in  another 
part  where  conditions  or  climate  are  different.  It  is 
therefore  safer  to  purchase  nursery  stock  from  nurs- 


FIG.  130.  —  Picking  Apples. 


252  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

cries  in  the  same  latitude  and  having  the  same  condi- 
tions of  climate  and  soil  as  the  orchard  to  be  set  out. 
Apples  will  keep  better  if  hand-picked,  packed  in  barrels, 
and  stored  in  a  place  just  above  freezing  point. 

The  Pear.  —  Clay  soil  if  well  drained  and  not  over- 
rich  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of  this  fruit.  The  pear 
is  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  apple,  so  far  as  cold  is  con- 
cerned, but  it  is  especially  liable  to  a  disease  called  fire 
blight,  which  disease  attacks  it  in  certain  localities, 
thereby  restricting  the  range  of  profitable  cultivation. 
Propagation  by  budding  is  commonly  practiced  with 
pear  trees.  Trees  may  be  set  somewhat  nearer  together 
than  the  apple  trees,  15  to  20  feet  apart,  as  they  do  not 
have  such  widespreading  branches. 

Potash  is  better  for  the  pear  orchard  than  manure 
rich  in  nitrogen,  for  the  latter  induces  luxuriant  growth, 
and  this  is  favorable  to  the  bacteria  that  cause  fire 
blight.  For  the  same  reason  pear  trees  require  less 
cultivation  than  other  fruit  trees. 

The  Quince.  -  -  This  fruit,  unlike  its  relatives  the 
apple  and  pear,  is  not  edible  in  its  raw  state,  but  makes 
excellent  jelly,  marmalade,  and  the  like.  It  is  an  ir- 
regular-growing tree  or  shrub  attaining  a  height  of  about 
10  feet.  It  grows  farther  south  than  the  two  preced- 
ing, not  being  able  to  thrive  in  the  colder  regions.  This 
tree  is  often  used  as  a  stock  upon  which  to  graft  the  pear, 
but  is  itself  usually  propagated  by  layers  or  cuttings. 
(See  pages  155  and  158.)  It  takes  from  two  to  twelve 
years  for  the  quince  to  reach  its  full  bearing  capacity. 

The  Peach.  --The  peach  grows  best  on  well-drained, 
sandy  loams  in  the  warmer  regions,  but  farther  north 
it  does  better  on  a  well-drained  clay  loam.  A  peach 
orchard  must  be  well  plowed  and  harrowed,  the  trees 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS  253 

being  set  from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  apart.  The 
great  peach-growing  states  are  New  Jersey,  Maryland, 
Georgia,  Delaware,  Michigan,  Colorado,  New  York, 
Connecticut,  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington.  This 
shows  a  wide  climatic  range,  but  peaches,  owing  to  their 
great  susceptibility  to  cold,  are  the  most  uncertain 
fruit  crop  raised.  A  few  overwarm  days  will  cause 
the  undeveloped  buds  to  begin  to  swell,  and  then  the 
cold  or  frost  blights  them  and  the  crop  is  ruined. 

Cotton  and  potatoes  are  often  grown  in  the  young 
peach  orchard  in  the  south,  the  cultivation  necessary 
to  these  crops  helping  the  trees. 

The  peach  is  usually  budded  (see  page  163)  on  its 
own  seedling,  for  the  production  of  which  the  pits  are 
stratified  and  then  planted. 

The  Plum.  --This  tree  is  native  in  central  and  north- 
ern United  States,  where  the  use  of  the  cultivated 
varieties  for  culinary  purposes  has  much  increased  in 
recent  years.  But  we  still  have  to  rely  largely  upon 
European  and  Japanese  species  for  our  dessert  plum. 
The  production  of  hybrids  through  cross-fertilization 
'with  the  foreign  plums  is  introducing  some  new  Ameri- 
can types  that  are  proving  valuable. 

The  American  plum  is  the  species  found  growing 
wild  in  our  woods.  Nurserymen  have  made  selections 
from  this  and  have  developed  some  desirable  plums. 
Cultivation  improves  both  the  size  and  the  quality. 

The  European  plum  is  the  original  plum.  The  more 
common  blue  and  yellow  plum  of  the  markets  and  the 
dried  prunes  are  from  this  species.  It  is  the  most 
extensively  cultivated  of  the  plums,  but  is  not  hardy  in 
the  northern  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  Japanese  plum  has  been  widely  disseminated  in 


254  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

North  America,  and  although  the  fruit  is  not  of  the 
best  quality,  hybrids  of  this  species  with  others  have 
produced  some  very  promising  varieties. 

Other  species  are  the  Chickasaw  plum  and  the  Wild 
Goose  plum,  of  which  the  Miner  plum  is  a  popular 
variety. 

Plum  trees  will  bear  fruit  the  second  or  third  year 
after  planting.  The  plum  as  well  as  the  cherry  and 
peach  is  propagated  by  budding  or  by  grafting. 

Suckers  grow  from  the  roots  of  the  plum  tree,  and 
when  these  are  from  trees  that  are  not  grafted  they  may 
be  removed  with  a  part  of  the  root  and  replanted.  This 
is  probably  the  best  method  of  propagating  plum  trees 
on  a  small  scale. 

The  Cherry. --There  are  two  chief  varieties  of  this 
fruit,  the  sweet,  or  English,  cherry  and  the  red,  or  sour, 
cherry.  The  former  is  a  good  dessert  cherry,  but  is 
not  hardy  enough  to  have  a  wide  range.  The  latter 
is  the  common  pie  cherry  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and 
northern  United  States.  Both  species  are  propagated 
by  budding,  grafting  the  cherry  being  rarely  successful. 
Heavy,  wet  soils  are  very  disastrous  to  this  tree.  A 
grass  crop  is  not  injurious  if  cut  often  and  used  as  a 
mulch. 

The  Citrous  Fruits.  —  No  family  orchard  in  Califor- 
nia can  be  considered  complete  without  at  least  one  or  two 
of  the  citrous  fruits,  such  as  oranges  and  lemons.  These 
are  known  as  semitropical  fruits.  In  America  they 
can  be  grown  with  profit  only  in  California,  Florida, 
and  the  delta  region  of  the  Mississippi  River.  This 
limited  range  makes  a  good  market  for  the  product 
when  raised  on  a  commercial  basis.  In  addition  to 
the  fruit  to  be  harvested  from  them,  the  trees  them- 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS 


255 


selves  are  quite  ornamental,  and  they  also  afford  abun- 
dant shade,  being  often  grown  for  these  purposes  alone. 
The    Orange.  -  -  The   orange  can   be  grown   in  Cali- 
fornia with  greater  profit  than  any  of  the  other  citrous 


FIG.  131. — Orange  Grove. 

fruits.  Though  its  production  is  chiefly  confined  to 
the  southern  part  of  the  state  and  the  Sacramento 
Valley,  yet  there  are  doubtless  small  regions  elsewhere 
in  the  state  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  this  fruit. 

The  chief  determining  factors  are  soil,  elevation,  and 
exposure.  The  orange  prefers  a  deep,  rich,  mellow  soil, 
though  it  will  thrive  in  nearly  every  kind  of  fertile  soil. 
The  orchard  should  be  protected  from  winds  by  a  grove  of 
trees  where  the  relief  of  the  land  does  not  afford  natural 
protection.  Though  irrigation  is  not  always  necessary, 
the  trees  must  be  supplied  with  plenty  of  water. 

Pruning  should  be  done  at  some  time  during  the  sea- 
son while  the  tree  is  dormant.  Only  those  branches 


256  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

which  are  dead  and  those  which  have  passed  usefulness 
should  be  removed.  There  is  great  danger  of  cutting 
away  too  much.  Care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  the 
natural  outline  of  the  crown,  as  both  fruit  and  leaves 
are  borne  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  orange  is 
propagated  by  budding.  After  two  years  of  growth 
in  the  nursery  it  is  set  out  in  the  orchard  and  usually 
commences  to  bear  five  years  after  planting. 

The  navel  orange,  a  seedless  variety  imported  from 
Brazil,  is  especially  adapted  to  California  conditions, 
but  will  not  thrive  in  Florida. 

The  ordinary  sweet  oranges  of  the  markets  grow  on 
trees  25  to  30  feet  high.  Seedlings  of  this  variety  are 
subject  to  root  rot,  and  on  that  account  it  is  usually 
budded  on  a  stock  of  sour  or  bitter  orange  which  is 
not  subject  to  this  disease. 

The  Satsuma  orange  grafted  on  Citrus  trifoliata  can 
be  grown  successfully  even  in  parts  of  southern  states 
subject  to  killing  frosts. 

The  Lemon. --This  tree  will  thrive  in  a  variety  of 
soils,  though  a  sandy  loam  is  preferred.  While  the 
lemon  does  not  require  the  high  temperature  necessary 
to  produce  the  best  qualities  in  the  orange,  it  will  not, 
at  the  same  time,  bear  such  low  temperatures  as  the 
orange.  Since  the  orarige  root  will  thrive  in  a  greater 
variety  of  soils  than  will  the  root  of  the  lemon,  it  is 
quite  common  to  graft  the  lemon  on  an  orange  seed- 
ling stock.  Owing  to  its  spreading  habit,  the  tree  must 
be  carefully  pruned.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  fruit  will 
be  borne  at  the  ends  of  the  long,  willowy  branches  and 
necessary  cultivation  will  be  rendered  impossible. 

The  Grapefruit  is  now  extensively  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Florida.  The  botanical  name  is  pomelo,  but 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


257 


owing  to  its  growing  in  clusters,  it  is  commonly  called 
grapefruit.  It  requires  about  the  same  conditions  and 
culture  as  the  or- 
ange, except  that 
it  demands  a 
higher  tempera- 
ture, being  slightly 
less  hardy.  Dif- 
ferent varieties  are 
propagated  by 
budding  on  pomelo 
or  orange  seedlings. 
The  Florida  Ex- 
periment Station 
recommends  the 
exclusive  use  of 
commercial  ferti- 
lizers as  they  cause 
the  trees  to  fruit 
more  heavily,  to 
produce  a  fruit  of 
better  quality,  and  to  maintain  a  healthier  condition. 
Fertilizers  should  be  applied  twice  a  year,  just  before  the 
commencement  of  growth  and  again  in  summer.  Some- 
times a  third  application  in  the  fall  is  advisable,  as  the 
roots  grow  during  winter  seasons. 

Berries.  —  Strawberries.  Certain  varieties  of  the 
strawberry  commonly  grown  in  the  United  States 
bear  only  pistillate  flowers  ;  that  is,  no  pollen  is  formed 
in  its  blossoms.  (See  page  148.)  This  requires  that 
some  variety  bearing  pollen-.forming  flowers  be  set 
out  with  it,  or  no  fruit  will  result.  It  has  been  found 
that  one  row  of  the  latter  to  every  three  or  four  of  the 
M.  &  H.  AG.  — 17 


FIG.  132.  —  Grapefruit. 


258 


ECONOMIC  PLANTS 


former  will  furnish  pollen  enough  to  fertilize  the  plot. 
Of  the  pistillate  varieties  the  following  are  very  popu- 
lar: Warfield,  Haverland,  and  Crescent.  Of  varieties 
having  both  stamens  and  pistils,  that  is,  perfect  or 
bisexual,  the  following  are  among  the  best  known : 


FIG.  133.  —  Cultivating  Strawberries. 

Senator  Dunlap,  Jessie,  Bederwood,  and  Wilson.  Most 
fruit  growers  set  out  their  plants  in  the  spring,  either 
in  hills  3  or  4  feet  apart,  which  allows  the  cultivation 
both  ways,  or  in  matted  rows,  which  allows  the  culti- 
vation only  between  the  rows.  The  plants  for  the 
latter  are  set  12  inches  apart,  in  4-foot  rows.  As 
runners  form,  the  row  becomes  a  mass  of  plants.  The 
ground  must  be  very  rich,  preferably  a  sandy  or  clay 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS  259 

loam  and  highly  cultivated.  Successful  growers  seldom 
use  the  same  ground  more  than  three  seasons.  Being 
low  growers,  strawberries  suffer  much  from  weeds  and 
droughts.  Careful,  clean  cultivation  is  essential  to 
success.  Straw,  leaves,  or  hay  is  used  as  a  winter 
covering  in  cold  regions. 

Raspberries  and  Blackberries.  There  are  four  well- 
known  varieties  of  the  raspberry,  the  American  red, 
the  European  red,  the  purple  cane  (a  hybrid  between 
the  first  and  last),  and  the  blackcap.  A  closely 
allied  fruit  is  the  blackberry.  The  American  and 
the  European  red  raspberry,  and  the  blackberry 
are  propagated  by  root  sprouts  one  year  old,  the 
last  two  by  layering  in  early  fall.  (See  page  158.) 
When  the  roots  are  well  formed,  the  connection  with 
the  parent  plant  is  severed,  and  the  new  plant  is 
transplanted  to  a  new  bed,  where  the  plants  are 
commonly  set  3!  or  4  feet  apart,  in  rows  6  or  7 
feet  apart.  These  berries  like  a  sandy  or  clay  loam, 
but  less  richness  of  soil  than  the  strawberry.  A  clean 
soil  is  just  as  essential  to  successful  culture.  Second- 
year  pruning  is  necessary  in  order  to  thin  out  the 
bushes,  and  each  year-old  and  dead  canes  should  be 
removed. 

Gooseberries  and  Currants.  Gooseberries  and  cur- 
rants belong  to  a  different  family  from  the  small  fruits 
just  described,  as  may  be  easily  seen  by  noticing  the 
difference  in  the  way  the  seeds  are  borne.  Propagation 
is  by  mound  layering  or  cuttings,  but  the  soil  required 
is  richer  and  moister  than  raspberries  need.  Free 
cultivation  and  mulching  will  make  them  respond  liber- 
ally with  fruit.  There  are  three  common  varieties  of 
the  currant :  red,  white,  and  black. 


260  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

The  Grape.  —  Grapes  require  plenty  of  heat  and 
sunlight,  good  drainage  and  a  light  soil  for  their  devel- 
opment. Terraced,  sunny  hillsides  are  frequently 
utilized  as  vineyards  in  this  country  as  well  as  in 
Italy.  Our  best  varieties,  the  Concord,  Worden, 
Catawba,  Isabella,  and  Delaware,  were  developed 
by  cross-pollination,  but  all  are  of  American  origin. 
Varieties  grown  in  California  when  dried  furnish  the 
raisins  of  the  market.  European  varieties  such  as  the 
Tokay  and  Muscat  thrive  in  California  only.  Layer- 
ing, root  grafting,  and  cuttings  are  commonly  practiced 
as  a  means  of  propagation  of  grapes.  The  soil  should 
be  well  prepared  for  the  new  plants,  which  are  usually 
set  7  to  10  feet  apart,  in  rows  7  or  8  feet  apart,  the  dis- 
tance being  determined  by  the  size  of  the  variety. 
Three  years  later  the  vine  will  begin  to  bear  fruit, 
always  on  the  year-old  stems,  usually  two  clusters  on 
each  shoot.  It  follows  that  the  ripened  shoots,  or 
canes,  must  be  pruned  each  year  in  order  that  the 
strength  of  the  vines  may  be  conserved  in  the  year-old 
fruit-bearing  stems. 

The  pruning  is  done  in  the  fall  in  cold  regions,  in  the 
spring  in  warm  regions.  The  remaining  stems  are 
supported  upon  trellises  in  this  country,  but  in  many 
European  countries  the  vines  are  allowed  to  trail  on 
the  ground.  Winter  covering  is  necessary  in  the 
colder  latitudes. 

The  Tomato. -- Though  commonly  thought  of  as  a 
vegetable  and  served  on  the  table  as  such,  the  tomato  is 
really  a  fruit.  It  may  be  planted  in  the  open  with 
considerable  certainty  of  a  crop,  but  north  of  the  latitude 
of  Washington  the  seed  is  sown  in  boxes  or  hotbeds 
soon  after  the  first  of  March.  The  young  plants  are 


ECONOMIC   PLANTS  261 

transplanted  to  another  box  as  soon  as  the  first  true 
leaves  appear,  set  out  in  2-inch  squares.  When  they 
begin  to  seem  crowded,  they  should  be  again  trans- 
planted in  4-inch  squares  and  kept  growing  until  near 
the  last  of  May,  when  they  may  be  placed  in  the  garden 
20  inches  apart  in  rows  about  18  inches  apart.  All 
side  branches  should  be  pruned  as  the  plant  grows  and 
the  main  stem  tied  to  a  stout  support  about  5  feet 
high,  as  the  plant  will  probably  reach  nearly  this  height. 
In  Michigan  the  tomatoes  have  shown  a  yield  as  high 
as  1 200  bushels  an  acre.  Tomato  growing  as  an  in- 
dustry has  attained  greater  proportions  in  Maryland 
than  in  any  other  state  in  the  Union. 

Melons. — Both  the  muskmelon  and  the  watermelon, 
while  natives  of  southern  Asia  and  Africa,  thrive  fairly 
well  in  northern  latitudes,  although  not  reaching  the 
full  luxuriance  and  rich  flavor  of  the  southern-grown 
product.  The  wire -grass  region  of  Georgia  is  said  to 
produce  the  best  quality  and  largest  crop  of  water- 
melons, while  no  section  has  succeeded  in  surpassing 
the  famous  Rocky  Ford  muskmelons  of  Colorado, 
although  this  variety  is  grown  extensively  in  other  parts 
of  the  United  States.  The  three  best  known  varieties 
are  cantaloupe,  nutmeg,  and  pineapple.  The  Rocky 
Ford  melon  is  a  nutmeg. 

The  muskmelon  needs  a  deep,  warm,  sandy  loam 
well  supplied  with  humus.  The  seeds  are  planted  in 
rows  6  feet  apart  and  I  inch  deep  in  hills  3  feet 
apart.  In  Colorado  irrigation  is  necessary.  The  most 
water  is  required  about  the  time  the  blossoms  begin  to 
set  well.  When  the  plants  have  four  leaves,  they  are 
thinned  to  three  plants  in  a  hill. 

The  south  annually  ships  millions  of  watermelons  to 


262  ECONOMIC   PLANTS 

the  north,  Georgia,  Texas,  and  Missouri  leading. 
Although  this  melon  is  raised  also  in  the  northern  states, 
it  thrives  best  on  a  rich,  warm,  sandy  loam  well  sup- 
plied with  humus.  Hills  are  planted  10  feet  apart.  In 
northern  latitudes  the  hole  is  made  from  8  to  10  inches 
deep  and  filled  two  thirds  full  with  rich,  well-rotted 
manure ;  the  soil  is  mixed  with  this  until  the  hill  is 
nearly  full,  then  a  small  quantity  of  wood  ashes  and 
hen  manure  and  a  little  phosphate  are  added.  In  the 
south  the  manure  is  spread  on  the  field,  not  concen- 
trated in  the  hill.  Ten  or  twelve  seeds  are  planted  in 
a  circle  about  I  foot  in  diameter  in  the  center  of  each 
hill  and  then  covered  with  less  than  an  inch  of  fresh 
moist  soil.  Deep  and  thorough  cultivation  is  neces- 
sary at  first,  followed  by  more  shallow  tillage  after  the 
vines  begin  to  run.  In  the  north  the  fruit  does  not 
begin  to  ripen  until  August. 

Note.  —  To  make  sure  of  early  ripening,  melons  are  often  started 
under  glass.  Two  or  three  seeds  are  planted  in  the  center  of  small 
squares  of  sod  packed  closely  together  with  the  grass  side  down.  The 
squares  with  the  growing  melon  are  transferred  to  the  field  or  garden 
when  the  weather  permits  without  injury  to  the  plant. 


CHAPTER  V 

PLANT  DISEASES 

BY  E.  M.  FREEMAN,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Pathology,  College  of  Agriculture, 
University  of  Minnesota 

What  is  a  Plant  Disease  ?  --  It  is  not  always  an  easy 
matter  to  define  disease  either  in  plants  or  in  animals.  As 
with  human  beings,  so  with  plants,  one  cannot  always 
distinguish  sharply  a  condition  which  may  be  called 
healthy  from  a  condition  of  slight  indisposition.  All 
sorts  of  gradations  between  perfect  health  and  a  badly 
diseased  condition  are  possible,  there  being  no  sharp 
line  where  one  can  say,  "These  are  diseased  and  those 
are  healthy."  For  instance,  thickly  planted  wheat 
may  result  in  a  growth  of  plants  that  are  not  quite  so 
vigorous  as  wheat  sown  at  the  normal  rate,  yet  the 
plants  may  not  be  very  noticeably  diseased.  They 
are  nevertheless  not  so  healthy  as  those  planted  under 
normal  conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  a  rusted  wheat 
plant  is  clearly  seen  to  be  diseased.  We  give  a  defini- 
tion, as  accurate  as  is  possible  when  we  say  that  when- 
ever the  ordinary  functions  of  a  plant  are  seriously 
interfered  with,  the  plant  is  diseased. 

Cause  of  Disease.  --There  are  many  ways  in  which 
plants  may  be  injured.  Mechanical  agents  of  one  sort 
or  another  account  for  a  good  deal  of  damage.  For 
instance,  hail,  wind,  and  frost  all  contribute  to  a  con- 

263 


264  PLANT  DISEASES 

siderable  loss  in  plants.  Gnawing  and  browsing  ani- 
mals may  injure  many  plants,  and  insects  cause  an 
enormous  amount  of  damage  to  plants  and  their  prod- 
ucts, many  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  plant  products 
being  destroyed  by  them  every  year  in  the  United 
States.  These  insect  injuries  may  be  merely  me- 
chanical, as  when  the  foliage  is  eaten  by  caterpillars ; 
galls  or  other  deformities  may  be  formed  on  the  plants; 
or  the  life  of  the  plant  may  be  so  interfered  with  by 
attack  on  a  root  system,  for  instance,  that  the  whole 
plant  dies. 

A  third  class  of  plant  injuries  may  be  said  to  be 
physiological.  When  the  conditions  of  weather,  soil,  or 
other  natural  surrounding  factors  are  not  quite  normal, 
the  plants  may  become  sickly  and  even  die.  There  are 
many  such  diseases  which  are  clearly  marked  and  which 
can,  at  the  present  time  at  least,  be  attributed  only  to 
some  serious  default  in  the  environment  of  the  plant. 

The  plants  known  as  fungi  constitute  the  fourth 
class  of  causes  of  injury  and  ordinarily  the  term  plant 
disease  is  limited  to  this  and  the  preceding  class.  Fun- 
gous diseases  of  plants  are  exceedingly  common  al- 
most everywhere  and  are  of  enormous  economic  im- 
portance. One  epidemic  of  rust  caused  a  damage  of 
probably  more  than  ten  million  dollars  in  one  year  in 
three  states  of  the  United  States.  It  is  with  the  fun- 
gous diseases  of  plants  that  this  chapter  particularly 
deals. 

Fungi.  —  First  of  all,  it  must  be  understood  that  the 
fungi  are  plants.  Some  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the 
many  kinds  of  fungous  plants  by  enumerating  a  few 
conspicuous  examples  :  the  mushrooms,  common  mold 
of  bread,  mold  of  cheese,  puff  balls,  the  woody  shelves 


PLANT  DISEASES 


265 


so  often  found  on  dead  or  decaying  trees,  the  yeasts, 
the  rusts  and  smuts  of  grains,  mildews  of  grapes  and 
potatoes,  and  the  powdery  mildews  of  lilacs  and  roses. 


FIG.  134.  —  Varieties  of  the  Most  Common  Kinds  of  Fruiting  Bodies  of  Fungi. 

2,  a  gill  fungus;  3,  caterpillar  fungus,  one  on  grub  and  other  on  fly;  4,  club  fungus;  5,  car- 
rion fungus;  6,  pore  fungus;  7,  a  morel;  8,  puff-ball;  g,  truffle;  10,  cup  fungus;  n,  sac- 
spore-capsule  of  powdery  mildew  (highly  magnified).  2-8,  after  Engler  and  Prantl;  io: 
after  Rehm;  9  and  n,  after  Tulasne. 


265  PLANT  DISEASES 

Smce  the  plants  known  as  bacteria  have  at  least 
similar  methods  of  life  and  cause  many  diseases  not 
only  in  animals  but  in  plants,  some  botanists  include 
them  within  the  group  of  the  fungi.  These  bacteria  are 
among  the  chief  agents  of  the  diseases  of  man,  such  as 
tuberculosis,  diphtheria,  cholera,  and  many  others. 

Since  the  fungi  are  plants,  it  will  be  well  to  compare 
them  with  plants  with  which  one  is  ordinarily  acquainted, 
namely,  the  common  flowering  plants.  The  flowering 
plants  may  be  called  independent  plants  because  they 
are  able  to  manufacture  food  from  the  elements  of  the 
soil,  and  from  air  by  the  use  of  sunlight  working  on  the 
green  material,  or  chlorophyll.  The  most  important  and 
conspicuous  difference,  at  least  from  our  standpoint, 
between  the  fungi  and  the  independent  green  plants, 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  fungi  do  not  possess  any  chloro- 
phyll. This  factor  has  a  very  deep  meaning,  namely, 
that  the  fungi  are  dependent,  not  independent,  plants. 
In  other  words,  they  cannot  manufacture  their  own  food 
as  the  green  plant  does,  but  must  derive  at  least  a  part 
of  their  nutrition  from  some  other  plant  or  animal. 

There  are  two  ways,  in  general,  in  which  the  fungi 
and  bacteria  may  derive  that  part  of  their  nutrition 
which  they  are  required  to  get  from  preceding  plants 
or  animals.  These  two  methods  of  sustaining  life 
form  the  basis  of  a  division  into  two  classes.  The 
first  class  comprises  the  parasites,  which  live  directly  on 
growing  plants  and  derive  their  nutrition  from  these 
living  plants.  Well-known  examples  of  this  are  smuts 
of  corn  and  other  cereals,  and  the  bacteria  which  cause 
the  diseases  of  man  mentioned  above.  The  second 
class  of  fungi  consists  of  those  which  do  not  live  on  other 
\iving  things,  but  which  get  their  nutrition  from  the 


PLANT  DISEASES 


267 


dead  and  decaying  remains  of  other  plants  and  animals. 
In  fact,  they  are  responsible  for  this  decay  since  they 
are  the  agents  which  break  up  the  dead  plant  or  animal 
body  into  simpler  compounds  and  in  so  doing  derive 
a  certain  amount  of  nutrient  material.  Good  examples 
of  this  sort  are  the  fungi  which  cause  the  rot  of  wood  or 
the  mold  of  bread  and  cheese.  These  fungi  and  bacteria 
are  called  saprophytes.  In  brief,  then,  there  are  two  life 
habits :  first,  of  parasites,  which  live  on  living  things, 
and  second,  of  saprophytes,  which  get  their  food  from 
either  dead  plants  or  animals. 

Life  Story  of  a  Fungus.  —  Although  the  most  con- 
spicuous  difference  between   the  fungi    and   flowering 


FIG.  135.  —  A  Germinating  Spore  at  Different  Successive  Stages  of  Several  Hours 

Apart. 

The  small  resulting  mycelium  is  seen  below.    A  caterpillar  fungus  (Cordyceps)  spore.    Highly 
magnified.     (Minnesota  Plant  Diseases.) 

plants  lies  in  the  lack  of  chlorophyll  in  the  fungi,  there 
are  also  other  very  great  differences.  Flowering  plants 
are  much  higher  types  of  organism  than  the  fungi, 
just  as  man  is  a  much  higher  type  of  animal  than 
the  horse.  This  difference  is  clearly  seen  when  one 
studies  the  life  story  of  the  fungus.  The  fungus  does 
not  produce  seeds.  Its  reproduction  nevertheless  may 
be  fairly  complex ;  in  fact,  one  fungus  may  reproduce  in 
a  number  of  different  ways. 


268  PLANT  DISEASES 

In  general  the  fungi  reproduce  by  means  of  spores. 
Spores  are  very  tiny,  usually  single-celled,  somewhat 
spherical  bodies  often  protected  by  a  thick  wall.  They 
may  be  scattered  by  wind,  water,  insects,  or  in  other 
ways  just  as  seeds  are  distributed.  Many  of  these 
spores  are  so  small  that  it  would  take  5000  of  them 
arranged  side  by  side  to  make  a  line  one  inch  long. 
When  this  tiny  spore  is  blown,  or  carried  in  some 
other  way,  into  unfavorable  conditions,  it  is  often 
able  to  resist  such  unfavorable  conditions,  as  cold  or 
dryness,  until  favorable  conditions  return.  Then  the 
spore  commences  to  grow.  It  swells  up  and  sends  out 
a  small  protuberance  which  soon  lengthens  into  a  thread. 
This  thread  is  known  as  a  hypha  (plural,  hyphce).  The 
hypha  elongates  rapidly  and  may  soon  begin  to  branch. 
The  branches  grow  and  again  branch  so  that  in  a  short 
time  a  dense  network  of  threads,  or  hyphae,  may  be 
built  up.  These  threads  are  so  constructed  that  they 
are  well  fitted  to  absorb  a  large  amount  of  material. 
In  form  and  power  of  absorption  they  are  similar  to  the 
root  hairs  of  the  flowering  plants.  The  whole  mass  of 
threads  which  is  engaged  in  absorbing  nutrient  material 
is  known  as  a  mycelium.  The  mycelium  after  growing 
for  some  time  may  send  up  special  threads,  and  on  these 
special  threads  the  spores  are  again  formed. 

The  two  important  parts,  therefore,  of  the  fungous 
plant  are  the  mycelium  and  the  spores.  The  spores 
and  mycelia  may  differ  very  widely  in  different 
fungi,  but  all  fungi  have  some  sort  of  spore  and  some 
sort  of  mycelium.  Rust  spores,  smut  spores,  mold 
spores,  and  spores  of  the  blight  are  very  different  from 
one  another  when  seen  under  the  microscope,  but  they 
all  produce  in  general  the  same  results ;  namely,  they 


PLANT  DISEASES 


269 


scatter  the  fungous  plant  or  preserve  the  plant  through 
the  winter,  or  other  unfavorable  seasons. 


FIG.  136.  —  The  Mycelium  of  a  Food-mold  Fungus  (Penicillium). 

A,  mycelium  which  is  entirely  absorptive  and  tufts  (/)  of  spores  (reproductive  tract).  The 
original  spore  from  which  the  mycelium  grew  is  seen  at  a.  B,  highly  magnified  view  of 
spore  tuft.  (After  Zopf.) 

The  life  stones  of  the  fungi  also  differ  greatly.  Smut 
has  a  very  different  history  from  rust,  and  rust,  again, 
has  a  very  different  life  story  from  the  blight.  It 
cannot  be  too  strongly  pointed  out  that  the  life  story 
of  each  disease-causing  fungus  must  be  accurately 
known  before  anything  can  be  intelligently  done  to 
fight  the  disease.  For  instance,  in  the  case  of  smut, 
the  spores,  which  appear  as  the  smutty  mass  in  the 


270 


PLANT  DISEASES 


wheat  head  get  on  the  mature  grain  at  harvest  time 
and  cling  to  the  grain  through  the  winter.  They  are 
planted  with  the  grain  in  the  spring.  When  the  grain 
commences  to  sprout,  the  smut  spore  commences  to 


FIG.  137.  —  Spores  of  Fungi. 

I.sack  with  spores;  2,  basidium  and  spores  from  a  mushroom;  3,  spore  case  of  mold  containing 
numerous  spores;  4,  tuft  of  pinched-off  spores  of  blue  mold;  5,  swimming  spores  of  an 
algal  fungus;  6,  spore  of  a  black  mold  produced  by  a  breeding  act  —  stalks  of  the  breeding 
cells  are  seen  below  the  spore,  i,  2,  and  5,  after  DeBary;  3,  after  Sachs;  4  and  6,  after 
Brefeld. 

sprout  and  the  hyphae,  or  threads,  make  their  way  to 
the  inside  of  the  grain  plant.  They  stay  inside  of  the 
plant  and  grow  up  with  it  until  the  wheat  plant  heads 
out,  when  the  parasite  inside  fills  the  kernels  with  its 
threads  ana  then  forms  spores  again.  Now  with  a 
knowledge  of  chis  life  history  it  can  readily  be  seen  that 


a.  bunt  or  stinking  smut  of  wheat  (Fife);  head  to  the  right  with  glumes  removed  to  show 
smutted  kernels  (smut  balls)  in  place;  two  whole  and  two  broken  smut  balls  shown  be- 
low; b,  a  sound  head  of  wheat  (Minnesota  No.  188),  with  sound  grains  shown  below;  c, 
loose  smut  of  wheat  (Minnesota  No.  188);  to  the  right  a  head  from  which  all  of  the 
spores  have  been  blown,  leaving  the  bare  stock. 


f 

if  i  W 


d,  two  heads  of  covered  smut  of  barley  (Minnesota  No.  105);  e,  a  sound  head  of  barley; 
/,  loose  smut  of  barley;  to  the  right  a  head  from  which  the  spores  have  been  blown. 

FIG.  138.  —  Smuts  of  Cereals.     Heads  of  Wheat  and  Barley  showing  the  Com- 
mon Smuts.     Bui.  152,  B.  P.  I.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 
271 


272  PLANT  DISEASES 

the  easy  place  to  attack  this  smut  is  when  the  spore 
is  clinging  to  the  seed.  It  is  therefore  possible  to  kill 
the  smut  by  washing  off  or  killing  the  spores  on  the 
outside  of  the  grain.  Hence,  seed  treatment  as  de- 
scribed below  will  cure  this  disease.  In  all  cases  the 
life  story  of  the  disease-causing  fungus  is  an  important 
thing.  It  is  the  main  object  of  this  chapter  to  bring 
before  the  student  the  relationship  between  these  life 
histories  and  combative  measures  which  will  give  a 
basis  for  the  intelligent  handling  of  plant  diseases  in 
general.  With  this  in  view  four  types  of  diseases  will 
be  described,  each  type  demanding  a  different  kind  of 
treatment.  The  reason  for  the  treatment  in  each  case 
will  be  shown  to  depend  on  the  life  story  of  the  disease. 

SOME  COMMON  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 

Smuts  —  Seed  Treatment.  —  Smuts  constitute  one 
of  the  most  common  and  destructive  groups  of  fun- 
gous diseases.  The  damage  in  the  United  States  to 
cereals  alone  reaches  many  millions  of  dollars,  and 
other  crops  may  also  be  attacked.  Every  farmer  is 
familiar  with  smut  in  wheat  and  oats,  and  everybody 
is  familiar  with  the  large  smut  mass  which  is  produced 
in  corn.  Not  all  the  smuts  of  cereals  are  caused  by  the 
same  fungous  plant.  That  is,  the  smut  of  corn  is  not 
the  same  smut  that  attacks  wheat,  nor  is  the  smut  of  wheat 
the  same  as  the  smut  of  oats.  Each  smut  is  a  separate 
disease  and  has  its  own  life  story,  although  two  or  more 
smuts  may  have  a  similar  life  history.  For  instance,  the 
oat  smut  and  the  stinking  smut  of  wheat  are  similar 
in  their  life  stories,  but  oat  smut  cannot  be  transferred 
to  wheat,  neither  can  wheat  smut  be  transferred  to 
oats.  In  order  to  illustrate  the  different  life  histories 


PLANT  DISEASES 


273 


and  methods  of  combating,  the  smuts  of  cereals  may  be 
divided  into  three  groups. 

i.  Stinking   Smut  of  Wheat,  Oat  Smut,  and  Covered 
Smut    of  Barley.     These    three    smuts,    although    dis- 
tinct, have  a  similar  life  story,  which  was 
briefly  described  above.     The  smut  spores 
cling  to  the  grain  over  winter,  are  planted 
with  the  seed,  and  grow  when  the   grain 
grows.     The  threads  which  are  thus  pro- 
duced   by    the   spore  get  into  the  grain 
plant  and  grow  up  with  this  plant  until 
heading-out  time.     The  threads  then  fill 
the  kernels  and  convert  them  into  a  black, 
smutty  mass.     As  pointed  out  above,  the 
treatment  of  the  seed  is  clearly  the  most 
efficient    method    for    treating    this  class 
of   diseases.      If,   for    instance,    one  puts 
the  seed  in  hot  water  at  about   130°  F. 
(for  details  of  treatment  see  various  State 
Experiment    Station    and    United    States 
Agricultural  Department  bulletins)  for  ten 
to  fifteen  minutes,  the  smut  spores  on  the 
outside  of  the  grain  are  killed,  while  the 
grain  itself  is  not  injured.     Careful  wash- 
ing of  the  seed  will  also  remove  a  good 
many  of  the  spores.     Other  methods  are    (After  G.  p.  ciin- 
useful    in    connection    with    this    group. 
For  instance,  a  40  per  cent  solution   of  formaldehyde 
(which  can  be  obtained  in  any  drug  store)  when  mixed 
with  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  to  about  forty 
gallons   can   also   be    used.     This  solution  poisons   the 
spores  and  kills  them,  while  it  does  not  affect  the  grain 
even  if  the  grain  is  allowed  to  stay  in  it  for  two  hours. 

M.  &  H.  AG.  -  l8 


G' 


274 


PLANT   DISEASES 


There  is  no  excuse  for  any  farmer  having  any  of  the 
three  smuts  just  mentioned,  as  he  can  kill  them  at  the 
cost  of  a  very  few  cents  an  acre  of  grain. 


FIG.  140.  —  Stinking  Smut  of  Wheat. 

I,  a  head  of  wheat  with  smutted  grains  (smutted  grains  are  colored  black);  2,  small  portion 
of  a  head  showing  smutted  grains  which  are  fissured,  and  show  the  black  spore  mass 
within;  3,  isolated  grains  which  are  smutted  and  have  fissured  walls.  One  grain  is  sec- 
tioned; 4,  smut  spores  germinated  and  producing  at  the  end  of  the  germ  tube  long,  needle- 
like  spores,  which  sometimes  fuse  together  in  pairs  by  cross  threads  as  shown  on  the  left; 
5,  the  thread  spores,  shown  in  4,  in  germination  sometimes  again  producing  secondary 
spores;  6,  smut  spores  germinating  to  long  infection  threads  without  first  forming  spores. 
4-6,  highly  magnified.  (After  Tubeuf.) 

2.  Corn  smut  forms  large,  boil-like  structures  on  the 
leaves,  ears,  tassels,  or  any  other  part  of  the  corn.  These 
boil-like  structures  develop  into  masses  of  powdery 
material ;  that  is,  the  spores  of  the  fungous  plant.  The 


PLANT  DISEASES 


275 


spore  masses  usually  find,  their  way  to  the  soil  when 
they  are  cut  down,  or  else  get  into  the  manure 
The  spores  may  grow  in  the 
manure  pile  or  live  over  the 
winter  in  the  soil  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing early  summer  or  spring 
the  threads  from  the  smut 
spores  will  again  pinch  off  little 
spores  that  are  carried  by  the 
wind  on  to  the  corn  plant.  Here 
these  spores  send  out  threads 
which  find  their  way  into  the 
corn  plant,  where  they  develop 
rapidly  and  form  another  boil. 
In  short,  then,  the  spores  live 
over  the  winter  in  the  manure 
pile  or  soil,  and  the  corn  plants 
are  infected  in  the  early  sum- 
mer from  these  spores  that  live 
over.  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  spores  do  not  live  over  on 
the  seed ;  hence,  there  is  no  ne- 
cessity or  use  in  treating  the 
seed.  The  only  method  now  FIG.  141.  — Corn  Smut  (Usti- 
known  of  reducing  corn  smut  is  lago  maydis}< on  an  Ear  of  Cora- 
to  prevent  if  possible  the  smut 
masses  from  getting  either  into 
the  soil  or  the  manure  pile, 
and  to  handle  the  manure  pile 
wisely;  that  is,  use  well-rotted  manure,  as  the  spores 
may  have  died  out  in  such  manure. 

3.    The   Loose   Smuts   of   Wheat   and  Barley.     These 
smuts  cannot  be  described  in  detail  here,  but  are  men- 


A  few  of  the  kernels  near  the  butt 
have  not  been  smutted.  All  the 
others  have  been  attacked  and  have 
increased  enormously  in  size.  The 
enlarged  kernels  are  filled  with  the 
smut  powder.  (Minn.  Plant  Dis.) 


276  PLANT  DISEASES 

tioned  briefly  merely  to  call  attention  to  the  diversity 
of  life  stories  in  the  smuts.  Ordinary  seed  treatment 
as  described  above  will  not  prevent  the  loose  smut  of 
either  wheat  or  barley.  The  reason  for  this  is  as  follows  : 
These  smuts  are  early  smuts ;  that  is,  the  smut  mass  is 
produced  early  in  the  summer.  The  spores  are  blown 
about  by  the  wind,  and  some  of  them  are  blown  into 
the  flowers  of  healthy  wheat  plants,  where  they  im- 
mediately begin  to  grow.  The  threads  then  get  into 
the  seed  before  the  latter  ripens,  so  that  at  harvest  time, 
in  the  case  of  loose  smut  of  wheat  and  barley,  we  have 
the  fungous  threads  already  inside  of  the  seed  buried 
to  some  depth  in  the  germ.  The  difference  between 
this  smut  and  the  stinking  smut  of  wheat  and  covered 
smut  of  barley,  where  the  spores  are  on  the  outside  of 
the  seed,  can  be  seen.  It  should  be  clear  that  where 
the  fungous  disease  is  already  inside  of  the  seed,  the 
ordinary  washing  or  poisoning  of  the  outside  of  the 
grain  will  not  be  effective,  and  this  has  proved  to 
be  the  case.  The  ordinary  seed  treatment  is  there- 
fore useless.  The  only  effective  method  known  at 
present  is  to  soak  the  grain  for  some  hours  and  then 
to  treat  it  severely  with  hot  water,  which  apparently 
kills  the  fungi  inside  of  the  grain  and  does  not  kill  all 
the  grain,  although  some  of  it  is  not  strong  enough  to 
survive. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  description  of  the  smuts  that 
if  a  farmer  has  smut  in  his  barley,  in  order  to  handle 
it  intelligently  he  must  know  whether  it  is  covered 
smut  or  loose  smut,  the  treatments  in  the  two  cases 
being  different,  because  the  life  stories  are  different. 

The  Blight  of  Potatoes  —  Spraying.  —  Potato  blight 
is  an  exceedingly  serious  disease,  especially  in  wet 


PLANT  DISEASES 


277 


years.  Losses  of  ten  millions  of  dollars  in  one  year  in 
the  eastern  states  of  the  United  States  have  been  known. 

Where    the    conditions    are 

>\ 

favorable  for  the  disease,  it 
travels  with  great  rapidity 
and  may  destroy  a  whole 
field  completely  in  twenty- 
four  to  forty-eight  hours. 
This  being  another  type  of 
plant  disease,  it  is  com- 
bated by  altogether  differ- 
ent means  from  those  used 
against  smuts  of  cereals. 
It  can  be  almost  entirely 
prevented  by  foresight  and 
the  application  of  methods 
based  on  the  life  story  of 
the  fungus. 

The  following  life  history 
will  illustrate :  The  disease 
may  live  through  the  win- 
ter in  the  potato  tubers,  FIG.  142.  — Early  Blight  of  Potato. 

DOSSlblv     also     in     the     Vines     The  life  story  is  somewhat  different  fromkter 
\  blight,  but  the  treatment  is  similar. 

Along  in  July  the   threads 

work  their  way  into  the  leaves  and  here  grow  very 
rapidly,  killing  the  tissues  of  the  potato  plant.  The 
threads  increase  in  number  and  soon  send  branches 
out  through  the  pores  in  the  surface  of  the  leaf, 
and  these  special  threads  pinch  off  spores.  From 
this  exposed  position  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf  the 
spores  are  blown  by  the  wind  and  may  fall  on  other 
leaves.  Potato  blight  can  spread  rapidly  only  in  damp 
or  wet  weather,  because  these  spores  falling  on  the 


278 


PLANT   DISEASES 


leaves  do  not  produce  a  thread  immediately,  but  break 
up  into  other  little  spores  which  swim  about  in  the  water. 

These  little  swimming  spores 
swim  around  in  the  drops  of 
rain  or  mist  for  a  time,  but 
finally  come  to  rest.  Then 
they  send  out  little  threads 
which  penetrate  the  leaves 
and  a  new-  infection  is 
started.  This  scattering  of 
spores  from  leaf  to  leaf  and 
the  growth  of  a  new  my- 
celium in  each  leaf  may  be 
very  rapid  and,  as  mentioned 
above,  may  destroy  a  whole 
field  in  a  very  short  time. 
Some  measures  for  combat- 
ing this  disease  are  already 
apparent.  Diseased  tubers 
for  planting  should  always  be  discarded.  The  most 
effective  method,  however,  for  fighting  this  disease  is  by 
spraying  on  the  plant  a  solution  which  is  particularly 
poisonous  to  the  fungus.  This  solution  is  known  as 
Bordeaux  mixture  and  is  prepared  by  mixing  a  solution 
of  blue  vitriol  with  limewater.  (For  detailed  directions 
see  Experiment  Station  bulletins.)  This  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  sprayed  on  in  as  fine  a  spray  as  possible,  the  for- 
mation of  large  drops  being  avoided.  The  spraying  is 
done  at  regular  intervals,  commencing  early  in  July  be- 
fore any  disease  appears  on  the  potatoes.  After  the 
plants  are  thoroughly  sprayed  with  the  mixture,  an  ex- 
amination of  the  leaves  shows  very  fine  spots  of  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture  all  over  the  leaf.  If  now  some  spores  of 


FIG.  143.  —  Potato  Blight  (Phy- 
lophthora  infestans,  one  of  the 
downy  mildews),  thread  with 
spore-like  swimming-spore  cases. 
(After  DeBary.) 


PLANT  DISEASES 


279 


the  blight  are  blown  on  to  the  leaf,  they  may  fall  be- 
tween these  spots  or  into  them.  The  spores,  it  will  be 
remembered,  do  not  grow  unless  water  is  present,  when 
they  break  up  into  swimming  spores.  When  water  is 
present,  the  Bordeaux  mixture  spots,  which  may  have 
dried  out  in  dry  weather,  again 
diffuse  through  the  drop  and 
the  little  swimming  spores  find 
themselves  in  a  little  lake  of 
poisoned  water.  The  finer  the 
spray,  the  more  numerous  are 
these  little  lakes  and  the  less 
numerous  are  the  safe  places 
between  them.  It  will  also 
be  seen  from  this  that  spray- 
ing is  a  preventive  measure, 
not  a  cure.  It  would  do  no 
good  t©  spray  a  plant  after  it 
already  has  the  blight,  because 
the  blight  in  such  a  plant  is 
inside  of  the  leaf.  More- 
over, when  heavy  rains  wash 
off  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  it  must  again  be  applied  in 
order  to  keep  the  plants  covered  by  the  mixture.  When 
the  Bordeaux  is  properly  applied,  it  will  not  injure  the 
foliage. 

There  are  large  numbers  of  plant  diseases  which 
attack  the  leaves  and  above-ground  portions  of  plants 
which  can  be  prevented  by  spraying.  The  most  com- 
monly used  material  for  spraying  is  the  Bordeaux 
mixture,  though  other  substances  are  sometimes  used. 
The  life  stories  of  the  diseases  which  can  be  prevented 
by  spraying  are  not  always  similar  to  that  of  the  blight 


FIG.  144.  —  A  Barrel  Pump  for 
Spraying  Plants. 


280 


PLANT  DISEASES 


of  potato.  The  general  principles  are,  however,  quite 
similar ;  namely,  that  the  spores  which  scatter  the  disease 
fall  on  the  leaves  or  other  above-ground  parts  of  the 
plants,  where  they  may  cause  infection ;  then  they 
start  to  grow  and  are  killed  if  the  spray  material  is 
already  on  the  leaf. 

Damping-off  of  Seedlings  —  Soil  Treatment.  — The  dis- 
ease known  as  damping-off  is  very  common  all  over 

the  world.  It  affects 
many  kinds  of  plants 
under  a  great  many  dif- 
ferent conditions.  It  is 
most  common  and  se- 
rious in  greenhouses  and 
nurseries.  Pansies  and 
many  other  greenhouse 
plants  are  very  com- 
monly severely  injured. 
In  nurseries  seedlings  of 
conifers  and  other  plants 
are  seriously  affected. 
The  disease  strikes  the 
seedlings  just  after  they  push  up  above  the  ground 
and  while  they  are  still  very  tender.  It  blackens  the 
stem  just  at  the  surface  of  the  soil,  killing  it  and  caus- 
ing the  seedling  to  tumble  over  and  finally  to  wilt  and 
die. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungous  plant  which  exists 
for  the  most  part  in  the  soil  where  the  spores  live  over 
the  winter.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  fungi 
which  have  been  known  to  cause  this  disease,  so  that 
damping-off  in  any  particular  case  may  be  due  to  one 
or  more  of  these  fungi.  They  do  not  all  have  the  same 


FIG.  145.  —  Flax  Wilt.     Wilted  Seedlings. 
(After  Bolley.) 


PLANT  DISEASES  281 

life  history,  but  they  have  this  feature  in  common,  that 
they  pass  most  of  their  life  in  the  soil  and  usually  are 
able  to  live  saprophytically,  that  is,  on  the  dead  material 
of  certain  other  plants.  They  also  all  possess  the  power 
of  becoming  parasites  by  attacking  the  seedling  plants. 
Another  feature  which  these  fungi  have  in  common  is 
that  they  thrive  best  under  moist  conditions.  Low 
situations,  therefore,  water-logged  soil,  poor  drainage, 
or  bad  ventilation,  as  in  a  greenhouse,  will  all  con- 
tribute to  the  spread  of  this  disease. 

The  life  story  of  one  of  the  most  common  and  best 
known  of  these  fungi  may  be  given  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  how  they  live.  This  fungus  is  commonly  known 
as  damping-off  fungus  (Pythium  debaryanum).  It 
produces  comparatively  large  threads,  which  grow  in  the 
soil  and  under  proper  conditions  give  rise  to  little  cases 
which  finally  break  and  let  out  tiny  spores  that  are 
provided  with  whiplike  lashes.  These  lashes  enable 
the  spores  to  swim  around  in  the  water.  The  spread 
of  this  fungus  is  therefore  made  easy  by  an  abundance 
of  water  in  the  soil  or  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
These  swimming  spores  finally  come  to  rest,  pull  in 
their  lashes  and  grow  out  into  threads  which  lengthen 
and  branch  in  the  usual  way  and  finally  build  up  a  mass 
of  threads,  that  is,  a  mycelium.  If  the  soil  dries  up 
or  other  conditions  come  about  which  are  unfavorable  to 
the  growth  of  the  fungus,  the  threads  may  form  another 
kind  of  spore  which  may  be  called  a  resting  spore,  or 
winter  spore.  This  spore  is  quite  large  and  has  a  very 
thick  wall,  so  that  its  contents  are  well  protected.  It 
can  endure  a  great  deal  of  drying  out  and  cold,  and  will, 
when  favorable  conditions  return,  again  break  up  into 
swimming  spores.  These  swimming  spores  grow  as 


282  PLANT  DISEASES 

those  described  above  and  again  a  mycelium  is  built 
up.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  fungus  is  well  adapted 
to  living  in  the  soil  on  dead  material  and  young  seed- 
lings. It  can  grow  rapidly  where  a  great  deal  of  mois- 
ture is  provided  and  can  spread  rapidly  by  means  of  its 
spores.  It  is  also  so  equipped  that  it  can  resist  dry 
or  other  unfavorable  conditions. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  life  history  of  this 
fungus  the  means  of  fighting  the  disease  can  easily  be 
surmised.  Drainage  of  the  soil  and  ventilation  in  the 
case  of  greenhouses  so  that  water  will  not  collect  at  the 
surface  of  the  soil  can  both  be  recommended.  The 
sanding  of  seed  beds  also  helps.  This  is  commonly 
practiced  because  it  keeps  the  surface  of  the  soil  dry, 
for  it  is  close  to  the  surface  that  the  disease  strikes  the 
seedlings.  Since  the  disease  occurs  mostly  in  seed 
beds  of  one  sort  or  another,  too  frequent  watering  should 
be  avoided.  In  some  cases  the  soil  becomes  so  badly 
infected  with  the  disease  spores  that  it  is  impossible 
to  grow  seedlings.  In  such  cases  it  is  sometimes  nec- 
essary to  sterilize  the  soil  for  these  seed  beds.  This 
is  done  by  heating  it,  which  kills  off  all  the  spores  in 
the  soil.  Large  seed  beds,  such  as  those  grown  for 
evergreen  trees,  are  sometimes  treated  with  solutions  of 
sulphuric  acid,  by  which  the  soil  is  partially  sterilized. 
This  has  been  found  to  give  good  results  in  certain 
cases.  In  general,  therefore,  the  treatment  of  this 
disease  lies  in  the  proper  treatment  and  handling  of 
the  soil. 

What  has  been  said  about  damping-off  and  its  rela- 
tion to  soil  treatment  applies,  at  least  in  part,  to  a 
large  number  of  plant  diseases  which  inhabit  the  soil 
and  which  may  attack  mature  plants  as  well  as  young. 


PLANT  DISEASES  283 

For  instance,  flax  wilt  is  a  disease  of  this  sort,  living 
almost  entirely  in  the  soil.  It  is  obviously  impossible 
to  sterilize  the  soil,  but  good  drainage  is  useful.  Since 
the  fungus  may  accumulate  in  the  soil,  the  chief  remedy 
for  such  a  disease  as  flax  wilt  lies  in  rotation  of  crops, 
so  that  the  fungus  in  the  soil  may  be  allowed  to  die  off 
between  the  crops  of  flax.  It  has  been  found  necessary 
where  flax  has  been  raised  for  a  long  number  of  years 
to  rotate  the  crop  so  that  the  flax  shall  not  be  put  in 
the  soil  more  than  once  in  five  to  seven  years.  The 
reason  for  this  is  readily  inferred  from  the  life  story  of 
the  disease.  In  the  case  of  flax  wilt  other  methods  of 
treatment,  namely,  seed  treatment  with  formaldehyde 
and  resistant  varieties,  are  also  necessary. 

Potato  Scab.  —  Potato  scab  is  a  disease  of  potato 
tubers  causing  scabby  patches  on  the  skin.  It  lives  and 
accumulates  in  the  soil  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar 
to  flax  wilt.  Rotation  of  crops  may  therefore  be  nec- 
essary in  severe  attacks  of  the  disease.  Ordinarily, 
however,  the  disease  can  be  prevented  by  treating  the 
seed  potato  with  a  corrosive  sublimate  solution  or  a 
solution  of  formaldehyde,  thus  destroying  the  fungous 
parasite  on  the  skin  of  the  potato. 

Rusts  of  Cereals  —  Resistant  Varieties.  —  The  rusts  of 
cereals  are  among  the  best  known  of  the  diseases  of 
agricultural  plants.  These  rusts  have  been  known  since 
the  time  of  the  Romans  and  undoubtedly  caused  losses 
in  times  even  earlier.  Rust  epidemics  in  recent'  years 
have  been  common  in  almost  every  country  on  the  globe 
where  cereals  are  raised  in  quantity.  As  with  the 
smuts,  so  here,  the  disease  which  is  to  the  farmer  known 
as  rust  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  so  forth  is  really  a 
collection  of  diseases.  There  are  in  other  words,  two 


284 


PLANT  DISEASES 


kinds  of  distinct  rusts  of  wheat,  and  two  of  each  of 
the  other  common  small  grains.  The  life  stories  of 

these  various  rusts  are,  how- 
ever, somewhat  similar.  At 
least  they  are  not  so  different 
as  to  demand  such  difference 
in  treatment  as  is  found  in 
the  case  of  the  smuts. 

The  life  story  of  one  of 
these,  namely,  the  stem  rust  of 
wheat,  commonly  called  black 
rust,  may  be  cited  by  way 
of  example.  Just  before  the 
wheat  plants  in  the  field  be- 
gin to  head  out  there  may  be 
found  on  the  stems  and  on 
the  lower  parts  of  the  leaves 
brownish  red  powdery  masses 
which  are  formed  in  streaks. 
These  are  the  so-called  sum- 
mer spores  of  the  stem  rust. 
The  spores  are  blown  off  by 
the  wind  and  new  ones  formed 
from  the  same  pustule,  or 
streak.  The  wind-blown 
spores  fall  on  other  wheat 

plants,  and  if  a  drop  of  dew  collects  around  them  or 
a  drizzling  rain  provides  some  water,  they  start  to  grow 
by  sending  out  a  fungous  thread.  This  thread  digs  its 
way  into  the  leaf  or  stem,  commences  to  branch,  and 
forms  a  tangle  of  threads,  and  this  tangle  soon  breaks 
open  the  outer  covering  of  the  leaf  and  again  forms  red, 
or  summer,  spores.  This  spore,  therefore,  is  particularly 


FIG.  146. — Wheat  Rust  (Pucdnia 
graminis). 

Stems  of  wheat  showing  opened  and  un- 
opened black  clusters  of  winter  spores. 
This  is  commonly  known  as  "  black 
rust  "  or  "  stem  rust."  Slightly  mag- 
nified. 


PLANT  DISEASES  285 

adapted  to  spreading  the  disease  through  the  wheat 
field  in  the  summer  time. 

As  the  wheat  plants  begin  to  ripen  just  before  harvest, 
the  fungous  thre-ads  which  have  produced  the  summer 
spores  now  begin  to  produce  spores  of  a  darker  color, 
which  are  provided  with  thick  walls  and  which  in  the 
pustule  look  black.  These  are  the  winter  spores  and 
are  commonly  called  the  black  rust.  They  are  really 
only  the  winter  stage  of  the  stem  rust.  These  winter 
spores  are  not  blown  about  by  the  wind,  but  remain  on 
the  straw  over  winter. 

The  summer  stage,  commonly  called  red  rust,  and 
the  winter  stage  cause  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  the 
wheat,  first  by  breaking  open  the  epidermis,  or  outer 
covering,  and  allowing  the  water  to  evaporate  from  the 
stem.  In  the  second  place,  where  the  wheat  plant  is 
badly  infected  with  the  disease,  a  great  deal  of  nutri- 
tion is  taken  by  the  parasite.  This  becomes  especially 
dangerous  in  the  stem  rust  of  wheat  when  the  rust 
covers  the  stem  just  under  the  head,  as  is  the  case  in 
an  ordinary  epidemic  of  rust. 

If  now  we  follow  the  life  story  through  the  winter 
stage,  we  find  that  the  winter  spores  which  remain  on 
the  wheat  straw  will  not  germinate  until  the  following 
springtime.  They  then  send  out  a  little  thread  from 
which  about  four  tiny  spores  are  cut  off.  These  spores 
are  blown  by  the  wind.  If  they  fall  on  the  leaves  of 
a  barberry  plant  (which  is  an  ornamental,  thorny 
shrub  very  commonly  raised  and  introduced  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States  for  hedges  and  other  orna- 
mental purposes),  they  will  grow  by  sending  out  an- 
other thread  and  penetrating  into  the  leaf  of  the  bar- 
berry, where  a  mycelium  is  built  up.  If  they  do  not 


286 


PLANT  DISEASES 


fall  on  the  leaves  of  a  barberry,  they  perish  and  are 
wasted. 

The    mycelium    in    the    leaf   of    the    barberry    soon 
produces  another  kind  of  spore  which  may  be  called  the 


FIG.  147.  —  Spores  of  Wheat  Rust. 

,  a  cluster  of  winter  spores  of  wheat  rust  (Puccinia  graminis)  on  wheat  plant;  2,  a  winter 
spore  germinating  to  a  thread  of  four  cells  (promycelium-basidium),  each  of  which 
bears  a  small  spore  (sporidium)  on  a  stalk.  The  winter  spore  germinates  in  the  spring 
while  still  in  the  straw  or  on  the  ground.  The  sporidia  are  blown  by  the  wind  to  another 
plant,  and  there  germinate,  as  seen  in  3  and  4  4,  shows  the  germination  of  a  sporidium 
on  a  barberry  leaf;  here  infection  will  soon  take  place;  5,  a  germinating  summer  spore 
of  wheat  rust,  showing  germ  tubes  which  on  a  wheat  plant  can  cause  infection.  All 
magnified.  1-5,  after  Ward. 

spring  spore,  produced  in  May  or  June  in  this  country. 
The  spring  spores  are  produced  in  chains  and  look  very 


PLANT  DISEASES  287 

much  like  the  summer  spores.  They  are  formed  in 
little  cups,  which  are  known  as  cluster  cups,  and  are 
blown  off  the  barberry  plants  by  the  wind.  These 
spring  spores,  or  cluster  cup  spores,  will  not  infect 
another  barberry  plant,  but  will  be  wasted  unless  they 
fall  on  a  wheat  plant.  Here  they  send  out  the  usual 
thread  and  infect  the  wheat  leaf  or  stem,  and  build  up 
a  mycelium  inside  of  the  wheat  leaf,  which  now  pro- 
duces the  summer  spore  with  which  we  started. 

The  life  story,  therefore,  is  seen  to  be  quite  complex. 
Summer  spores  are  produced  on  the  wheat  plant  in 
midsummer  and  up  to  harvest  time.  The  same  myce- 
lium will  then  produce  the  black  stage  or  winter  spores. 
These  live  over  on  the  straw  of  wheat  until  spring,  when 
they  grow,  and  by  means  of  small  spores  which  arc 
blown  by  the  wind,  cause  the  infection  of  barberry 
plants,  and  on  these  barberry  plants  the  spring  spores 
are  produced.  The  spring  spores  are  then  blown  to  the 
wheat  plants  and  again  cause  the  summer  spores. 

As  has  been  before  mentioned,  the  life  stories  of  the 
different  rusts  of  cereals  are  not  all  similar.  The  wheat 
stem  rust,  as  described,  lives  on  two  plants,  the  wheat 
plant  and  the  barberry  plant.  Some  rusts,  as,  for  in- 
stance, one  of  the  oat  rusts,  lives  on  the  oats  and  on 
the  buckthorn. 

Another  possibility  of  the  life  history  needs  to  be 
mentioned.  The  rusts  of  cereals  are  able  also  to  infect 
certain  wild  grasses  which  live  through  the  winter.  The 
summer  stage  of  the  rust  on  these  grasses  is  sometimes 
formed  late  in  the  fall  and  may  live  over  the  winter 
under  the  snow  so  that  the  summer  spores  on  these 
grasses  may  appear  early  in  the  spring  and  start  an- 
other infection,  when  they  are  possibly  carried  back 


288  PLANT  DISEASES 

again  to  the  wheat  plant.  This  method  of  living  over 
the  winter  will  be  seen  to  be  independent  of  any  bar- 
berry plants.  In  short,  the  stem  rust  of  wheat  may  live 
over  the  winter  in  the  summer  stage  and  also  in  the 
winter  stage.  The  summer  stage  that  lives  over  does 
not  need  a  barberry  plant,  while  the  winter  stage  does. 
The  wintering  over  of  the  summer  stage  is  compara- 
tively easy  in  our  southern  states,  as,  for  instance, 
Texas,  where  the  winter  is  not  so  severe,  but  it  is 
also  known  to  occur  as  far  north  as  Minnesota  and 
North  Dakota. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  of  their  life  history, 
the  possibilities  and  difficulties  of  combating  rusts  may 
now  be  mentioned.  Seed  treatment,  such  as  is  com- 
monly used  for  smut,  has  apparently  no  effect  on 
the  rust;  neither  will  the  treatment  of  the  soil  assist  in 
any  way,  since  the  spores  do  not  live  over  in  the  soil. 
Even  the  burning  of  the  straw  with  the  black  or  winter 
stage  on  it  has  not  given  any  beneficial  results,  since 
the  summer  stage  can  live  over  the  winter  on  the  wild 
grasses  or  the  summer  spores  may  be  blown  up  from  the 
south,  where  they  can  easily  live  over  the  winter  on 
winter  wheats  or  wild  grasses.  Of  the  most  common 
methods  for  treating  diseases  which  have  been  men- 
tioned above,  spraying  is  the  only  one  left  to  consider. 
The  spraying  of  the  fields  of  wheat  is  apparently  an  im- 
practicable remedy.  Moreover,  the  spraying  of  Bor- 
deaux has  neverbeen  found  to  give  very  beneficial  results. 
Even  if  it  were  possible  to  prevent  the  disease  by  spray- 
ing, it  seems  probable,  from  the  nature  of  the  crop  and 
the  difficulty  of  covering  such  large  areas  as  would 
be  necessary  to  cover,  that  the  spraying  of  rust  would 
be  impracticable.  It  has  been  necessary,  therefore, 


PLANT  DISEASES  289 

to  discover  other  methods  for  combating  the   rusts  of 
cereals. 

It  was  formerly  thought  that  rust  spreads  most  easily 
in  muggy  or  foggy  warm  weather,  following  sunshiny 
weather.  It  has  been  recently  found  that  this  is  not 
the  case,  but  that  it  spreads  best  in  cold  cloudy  weather 
during  the  period  between  heading  out  of  the  grain  and 
harvest  time.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  rust 
spores  germinate  best  and  the  mycelium  also  grows  best 
at  a  low  summer  temperature.  Cool  weather  also  brings 
abundant  dew  which  furnishes  water  drops  for  the  spores 
to  grow  in.  Water  may  also  be  furnished  by  rain  or 
fog,  but  heavy  rains  tend  to  wash  off  large  numbers  of 
spores.  Hot  weather  is  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of 
the  rust,  but  after  the  rust  has  gained  a  foothold  it  may 
increase  the  rust  damage  by  drying  up  the  plants  more 
rapidly  on  account  of  the  wounds  in  the  skin  caused  by 
the  rust.  Since  man  has  no  control  over  the  weather 
conditions,  control  of  the  rust  is  very  difficult.  From 
these  considerations  it  is  seen  that  the  selection  of  a 
proper  locality  for  the  cereal  is  important,  since  wheat 
in  a  low  situation  is  apt  to  have  more  moisture  and 
colder  night  temperature  than  wheat  in  high  situations. 
Good  drainage  is  also  somewhat  important.  In  irri- 
gated countries  too  much  water  must  not  be  used,  but 
it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  rust  seldom  causes  damage 
in  irrigated  districts.  Another  feature  of  good  farm- 
ing which  would  assist  in  keeping  the  rust  in  check 
is  the  rotation  of  crops,  since  it  would  tend  to  the 
production  of  less  of  one  kind  of  cereal  and  thus 
make  the  travel  of  the  disease  from  one  locality  to 
another  less  likely.  The  growing  of  wheat  or  any 
other  single  cereal  crop  all  over  a  certain  district  or 

M.  &  H.  AG.  —  IQ 


290  PLANT  DISEASES 

state,  such  as  was  and  is  commonly  practiced  in  the 
prairie  states  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  furnishes  an 
excellent  method  for  spreading  the  rust.  All  the  com- 
bative measures  so  far  mentioned  are  merely  in  the 
nature  of  mild  precautions.  They  will  not  always  pre- 
vent the  rust  and  in  the  case  of  an  epidemic  will  have 
no  effect  at  all  in  most  cases.  They  should  not,  how- 
ever, be  neglected,  since  they  constitute  methods  of 
good  farming  regardless  of  the  rust  question. 

The  most  hopeful  remedy  for  rust  has  yet,  however, 
to  be  mentioned,  and  this  is  the  selection  of  varieties. 
It  is  found  where  varieties  of  wheat  differ  in  the  time 
of  maturing  one  or  even  two  weeks,  that  the  early 
variety  more  often  escapes  the  rust  than  the  late 
variety.  That  is,  the  rust  epidemic  may  come  along 
just  too  late  to  catch  the  early  variety.  Sometimes 
an  early  variety  may  be  attacked  where  a  late  variety 
is  not,  but  more  often  the  early  variety  escapes.  It 
can  usually  be  recommended,  therefore,  that  early 
varieties  be  planted.  It  is  well  known  that  the  stem 
rust  of  wheat  is  not  usually  so  severe  in  the  winter 
wheat  districts  as  it  is  in  the  spring  wheat  regions,  and 
in  the  latter  regions  where  wheat  can  be  grown  the 
winter  wheat  frequently  escapes  the  rust  on  account  of 
its  earliness,  while  the  spring  wheat  may  be  attacked. 

Finally,  rust  may  be  prevented  to  a  large  extent  by 
the  selection  of  varieties  which  are  known  as  resistant 
varieties.  In  wheats,  as  in  a  great  many  other  plants, 
different  varieties  give  different  reactions  against  a 
certain  disease.  Some  varieties  may  be  very  suscep- 
tible to  a  disease,  while  others  may  resist  the  disease : 
just  as  in  human  beings  certain  people  are  predisposed 
toward  certain  diseases,  while  others,  although  exposed 


PLANT  DISEASES  291 

to  infection,  may  escape.  Varieties  of  wheat  resistant 
to  rust  are  known.  The  group  of  wheats  known  as 
durum,  sometimes  called  macaroni  wheats,  contains  a 
great  many  varieties  which  are  actually  resistant  to 
rust.  Some  of  the  durum  wheats  are  not  at  all  resist- 
ant, but  a  large  number  of  the  varieties  have  demon- 
strated their  resistant  powers  in  experimental  fields 
as  well  as  in  actual  epidemics.  Unfortunately  these 
durum  wheats  are  not  adapted  to  all  the  localities 
where  other  wheats  can  be  grown  so  that  they  cannot 
be  recommended  in  place  of  the  spring  and  winter 
wheats  in  every  case.  In  the  raising  of  any  crop  all 
the  factors  tending  to  the  production  of  the  most 
profitable  yield  must  be  considered,  and  rust  is  only 
one  of  the  factors.  Durum  wheats  do  not  command 
so  high  a  price  as  spring  and  winter  wheats  and  the 
farmer  rightly  takes  this  into  consideration.  The 
fact  remains,  however,  that  many  durum  wheats  can 
be  grown  which  will  resist  severe  epidemics  of  rust. 
It  remains  for  the  farmer  to  decide  whether  the  rust 
is  a  sufficiently  important  factor  to  warrant  the  growing 
of  this  sort  of  wheat.  Many  experiment  stations,  as 
well  as  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
are  now  attempting  by  plant-breeding  methods  to  de- 
velop varieties  of  spring  and  winter  wheats  which  have 
resistant  powers  against  rust  and  which  still  retain 
the  other  desirable  characteristics  of  these  wheats. 
The  history  of  plant  breeding  has  already  shown  that 
it  is  possible  in  some  cases  even  in  a  very  short  time  to 
develop  by  selection  or  crossing  varieties  which  are 
specifically  resistant  to  certain  diseases,  and  this  is 
hoped  for  in  the  case  of  rust  of  cereals. 


CHAPTER  VI 
INSECTS  AND    OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 

Destructive  and  Valuable.  -  -  The  enormous  losses 
suffered  through  the  depredations  of  insects  and  other 
small  animals  on  the  farms  of  America  reach  such 
large  amounts  that  the  knowledge  of  the  life  history 
of  these  small  animals  'and  how  to  control  them  be- 
comes of  great  importance  in  crop  production  and 
comfortable  living.  The  money  losses  of  such  depre- 
dations are  variously  estimated  from  $700,000,000  to 
$1,000,000,000  annually. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  insects  prove  of  great 
benefit  to  mankind  by  holding  in  check  the  harmful 
kinds,  while  still  others  produce  a  product  of  great 
value.  The  Hessian  fly  is  responsible  for  a  loss  of 
$50,000,000  annually,  while  bees  produce  a  product 
valued  at  $10,000,000  annually. 

WORMS  (Annulata) 

This  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  is  familiar  to 
every  one.  A  tubular  body  made  up  of  a  number  of 
rings,  or  segments,  having  a  digestive  system  consisting 
of  a  tube  running  through  the  body,  a  distinct  nervous 
and  circulatory  system,  and  reproducing  by  means  of 
eggs,  include  the  chief  characteristics  of  worms. 

The  common  earthworm,  or  angleworm,  is  the  most 
important  member  of  this  branch.  Darwin  made  a 

2Q2 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 


293 


special  study  of  the  earthworm,  making  prominent 
its  great  importance  and  benefit  to  agriculture.  He 
estimated  that  in  some  parts  of  Eng- 
land this  little  animal,  in  boring,  brings 
to  the  surface  ten  tons  of  subsoil  to  the 
acre.  It  bores  its  hole  in  the  ground 
by  passing  the  earth  through  its  body. 
This  hole  may  be  six  to  eight  feet  in 
depth. 

The  angleworm  feeds  on  organic 
matter  in  the  earth,  and  sometimes 
draws  into  its  hole  small  bits  of  leaves 
which  it  uses  as  food.  During  the 
day  it  remains  in  its  hole  unless  forced 
out  by  the  filling  of  its  hole  with 
water,  as  during  a  heavy  rainstorm, 
but  at  night  it  comes  to  the  surface 
to  feed.  During  the  winter  it  hiber- 
nates below  the  frost  line. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  value 
to  agriculture  performed  by  these  lit- 
tle creatures.  The  large  amount  of  a>  the  worm  itself;  j,  a 
subsoil  worked  over  by  them  and  de- 
posited at  the  entrances  to  their  holes 
in  little  pellets  of  earth,  called  cast- 
ings, is  one  means  of  constantly  re- 
newing the  soil.  The  holes  also  admit 
air  and  water,  both  beneficial  to  the  subsoil ;  and  the 
vegetable  matter  drawn  into  their  holes  increases  the 
humus  in  the  soil. 

Note.  —  Tapeworms,  which  infest  the  intestines  of  animals,  and 
trichinae,  small  worms  found  in  the  lean  part  of  pork,  are  parasitic 
worms  not  belonging  to  the  same  division  as  the  Annulata, 


FIG.  148. —  Earth- 
worm. 


small  part  magnified  to 
show  bristles  pointing 
backward.  These  aid 
the  worm  in  moving  for- 
ward, c,  egg  of  worm; 
d,  young  worm  coming 
out  of  the  egg.  (Bur- 
nett.) 


294         INSECTS  AND   OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 

The  trichinas,  small  microscopic  animals,  are  the  most  important. 
Hogs  become  infected  by  eating  some  animal,  possibly  a  rat,  that  has 
the  trichinas  in  its  muscles.  When  taken  into  the  intestines  of  the 
hog,  they  increase  to  great  numbers,  and  then  work  their  way  into  the 
flesh,  where  they  become  surrounded  by  a  cyst.  Man  may,  in  turn, 
become  infected  by  eating  raw  or  partly  cooked  pork.  The  only  way 
to  avoid  this  danger  is  always  to  have  pork  thoroughly  cooked  before 
it  is  eaten. 

INSECTS  (Insectd) 

Characteristics.  —  Many  people  improperly  include 
in  this  class  all  small  animals,  speaking  of  the  coral 
insect  and  also  spiders  as  belonging  to  this  class. 
There  are  more  different  species  of  insects  than  of  any 
other  class  in  the  animal  kingdom,  but  there  should 
be  included  under  this  term  only  such  as  have  certain 
definite  characteristics.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
insects  have  their  bodies  divided  into  three  distinct 
parts  :  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen.  The 
head,  which  is  the  first  segment,  is  furnished  with 
a  pair  of  jointed  organs  of  variable  length,  called  an- 
tenna ;  the  thorax  has  three  segments,  to  each  of 
which  is  attached  a  pair  of  jointed  legs,  six  in  all;  the 
abdomen  has  usually  nine  segments.  Many  insects 
have  two  pairs  of  wings,  some  have  only  one  pair,  while 
still  others  have  none. 

Metamorphosis. — All  insects  go  through  certain 
changes  of  form  from  the  egg  to  the  fully  developed 
insect.  Such  a  change  is  called  a  metamorphosis. 
A  complete  metamorphosis  involves  four  distinct  states  : 
first,  the  egg;  second,  the  larva,  which  is  the  cater- 
pillar, grub,  or  maggot  stage;  third,  the  pupa,  or 
chrysalis  stage,  in  which  the  larva  is  inclosed  in  a  cell 
of  silken  material,  or  a  protecting  case,  or  often  is  naked  ; 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS          295 

fourth,  the  imago  stage,  which  is  the  fully  developed 
insect. 

Some  insects  pass  through  all  the  stages  mentioned, 
while  others  omit  the  pupal  stage,  the  one  correspond- 
ing to  the  larva  then  being  called  a  nymph ;  and  still 
others  both  the  larval  and  the  pupal  stages ;  in  which 
cases  they  are  said  to  pass  through  incomplete  meta- 
morphosis. 

Insects  are  classified,  according  to  peculiarities  of  the 
wings  and  other  characteristics,  into  orders. 

Locusts  (Orthoptera,  straight-winged). --This  order 
has  its  fore  wings  straight;  its  hind  wings  are  gauzy 
and  folded  in  fanlike  plaits.  Its  members  have  well- 
developed  jaws  and  powerful  legs.  The  metamorphosis 
is  incomplete,  the  larval  and  the  pupal  stages  being 
wanting.  To  this  order  belong  locusts,  grasshoppers, 
crickets,  katydids,  and  cockroaches.  The  seventeen-year 
locust  is  not  a  true  locust  and  does  not  belong  here. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  or  Migratory  Locusts.  Since 
the  time  of  Pharaoh  locusts  have  been  feared  by 
mankind.  When  the  crops  are  ripening,  locusts  some- 
times appear  in  swarms,  sparing  nothing  that  is  green, 
often  destroying  the  entire  crops  of  sections  over  which 
they  pass.  In  the  seasons  of  1874-1876  the  losses  sus- 
tained from  this  pest  were  over  $50,000,000. 

The  locust  appears  in  small  numbers  every  summer, 
but  its  natural  enemies  and  the  unfavorable  conditions 
for  the  development  of  the  insect  from  the  egg  keep  it 
from  being  a  great  pest.  It  is  probable  also  that  the 
cultivation  of  large  areas  of  the  western  country,  and 
fall  plowing,  will  destroy  the  eggs  so  that  it  may  never 
again  pass  over  large  areas  of  country,  causing  complete 
devastation. 


296 


INSECTS   AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


FIG.  149.  —  Grasshoppers  laying  Eggs. 


The  female  forms  a  little  hole  in  the  earth  with  her 
ovipositor  and  then  deposits  her  eggs  at  the  bottom. 

Here  they  remain 
till  spring,  when 
they  hatch  out 
into  young  lo- 
custs. The young 
molt,  or  change 
their  coats,  two 
or  three  times  be- 
fore they  reach 
the  adult  stage 
with  fully  devel- 
oped wings. 

If  locusts  are 
marching  across  a  country,  poison  baits,  hopperdozers, 
spraying,  and  other  measures  give  only  temporary  relief. 
For  the  native  grasshopper  fall  plowing  is  the  best  pre- 
ventive measure,  as  it  destroys  many  eggs  by  throwing 
them  to  the  surface,  where  they  may  be  eaten  by  the 
birds  or  destroyed  by  exposure. 

Cockroaches.  These  insects  seek  some  dark  crack 
or  crevice  in  the  daytime  and  come  out  to  feed  at 
night.  They  are  most  numerous  in  damp  basements 
and  about  water  pipes  and  bathrooms.  Their  eggs  are 
laid  in  a  capsule  carried  about  by  the  female  until  she 
finds  a  convenient  place  for  deposit.  Cockroaches  are 
difficult  to  get  rid  of  when  they  infest  a  dwelling,  but 
a  liberal  sprinkling  of  powdered  borax  in  cracks  and 
crevices  where  they  abide  will  usually  drive  them  away. 
Dragon  Flies  (Odonata).  --This  order  has  long,  lace- 
like,  gauzy  wings  and  well-developed  jaws.  Their 
metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


297 


The  dragon  fly,  with  its  long  slender  body,  large 
eyes,  and  brilliant  wings,  may  be  seen  darting  about 
in  the  summer.  It  is  called  the  Devil's  darning  needle 
and  also  the  mosquito  hawk. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  water  or  on  some 
stem  growing  in  the  water.  The  young  when  hatched 


FIG.  150.  —  Dragon  Fly. 

feed  on  the  larvae  of  other  insects  found  in  the  water. 
In  the  imago,  or  fully  developed  stage,  they  catch 
their  prey  and  feed  on  it  in  the  air.  This  insect  destroys 
numberless  mosquitoes,  both  in  the  water  and  out. 

Beetles  (Coleoptera,  sheath-winged). --There  are 
probably  one  hundred  thousand  different  species  of 
beetles.  Their  mouth  parts  are  developed  for  biting; 
the  fore  wing  is  horny  and  the  hind  wing  is  gauzy  and 
folded  under  the  fore  wing  when  not  in  use.  Beetles 
go  through  a  complete  metamorphosis. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  name  here  all  the  beetles, 
but  a  few  of  the  most  common  included  in  this  order  are  : 
June  bugs,  ladybirds,  potato  bugs,  burying  beetles,  blis- 
ter beetles,  weevils,  fireflies,  tumble  bugs,  and  curculios. 


298 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 


Potato  Bugs  (Colorado  potato  beetles}.  This  insect  is 
improperly  called  a  bug.  It  is  a  beetle,  and  one  of  the 
most  destructive  of  its  kind.  It  originated  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  at  first  lived  on  a  kind  of  wild 
potato  plant.  As  soon  as  cultivated  potatoes  were 

introduced,  the  beetle 
devoured  the  leaves  of 
the  cultivated  vari- 
ety and  soon  spread 
throughout  the  coun- 
try. 

The  beetle  lays  from 
five  hundred  to  one 
thousand  eggs  in  a  sea- 
son, usually  in  clusters 
on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf  of  the  potato.  As 
soon  as  these  hatch,  the 
young  larvae  commence 
their  feast  on  the  leaves,  where  they  keep  on  eating  and 
growing  for  about  two  weeks ;  then  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  ground  to  pass  the  pupal  stage.  After 
ten  days  they  come  out  as  beetles,  with  the  distinctive 
yellow-striped  wings.  In  the  imago  stage  as  well  as  in 
the  larval  the  beetle  eats  the  potato  vines,  but  they 
are  especially  destructive  during  the  larval  stage. 

The  best  means  of  killing  potato  beetles  is  with  a 
spray  of  some  arsenical  solution.  Paris  green  in  water, 
about  one  pound  to  fifty  gallons,  is  probably  the  most 
common  means  of  destroying  the  beetle.  Some  prefer 
to  mix  Paris  green  with  dust,  or  preferably  flour  (one 
pound  of  Paris  green  in  four  pounds  of  flour),  and  shake 
it  over  the  vines  when  they  are  wet  with  dew. 


FIG.  151.  —  Potato  Beetles,  Larva,  and  Eggs. 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS         299 

The  cheapest  and  safest  poison  to  use  is  arsenate 
of  lead.  This  is  applied  the  same  as  Paris  green,  but 
it  will  not  burn  the  leaves  as  Paris  green  does  if  used 
too  strong.  The  arsenical  poison  may  be  mixed  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  and  the  combination  used  as  a 
spray  will  prevent  wilt  and  kill  the  potato  beetles. 
(See  page  61  for  method  of  making  Bordeaux  mixture.) 

The  Lady  Bug  (Ladybird}.  This  beetle  is  one  of 
the  useful  kind.  It  feeds  upon  the  eggs,  larva,  and 


FIG.  152.  —  Ladybird  Beetles,  or  Lady  Bugs. 

The  straight  lines  represent  the  average  natural  length.    These  beetles  are  very  destructive 

to  plant  lice. 

imago  of  other  destructive  insects.  One  species  de- 
vours the  eggs  of  the  potato  beetle. 

The  Buffalo  Moth  (buffalo  bug,  buffalo  beetle}.  This 
destructive  insect  is  not  a  bug  or  a  moth,  but  a 
beetle.  It  attacks  carpets  laid  on  the  floor,  and  im- 
properly protected  garments  or  furs.  It  acts  very 
much  like  the  clothes  moth. 

To  get  rid  of  the  buffalo  beetle,  thoroughly  wash  the 
floors  with  soapsuds,  then  drench  them  with  benzine  or 
kerosene ;  beat  the  carpets  and  rugs  thoroughly  before 
laying  them  on  the  floor.  House  cleaning  of  this  kind 
should  be  repeated  twice  each  year. 

Note-  —  Weevils  are  beetles  that  often  attack  peas,  beans,  and 
various  other  seeds  in  storage  ;  if  these  can  be  placed  in  closed  vessels 
with  a  small  quantity  of  carbon  disulphide  (see  page  58)  and  allowed 
to  remain  for  a  few  hours,  the  weevils  will  be  destroyed.  All  flames 
should  be  kept  away  from  this  substance  as  it  is  dangerously  explosive. 


INSECTS   AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


Weevils  are  also  found  in  flour  and  often  infest  flour  milis.  The 
only  practical  method  of  killing  them  in  flour  mills  is  to  use  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas.  This  gas  is  fatal  to  all  animal  life,  and  should  be 
used  only  with  the  utmost  caution  and  by  those  who  understand  the 
proper  method  of  using  it.  The  mill  or  room  to  be  fumigated  is  closed 
tightly  and  arrangements  made  for  properly  ventilating  it  without  en- 
tering it  after  the  fumigation  is  complete.  One  ounce  of  cyanide 
of  potash  is  used  for  each  one  hundred  cubic  feet  to  be  fumigated.  A 
four-gallon  crock  containing  five  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid  and  seven  and 
one  half  pounds  of  water  should  be  left  in  the  room.  Just  before  leaving, 
three  pounds  of  cyanide  of  potash  done  up  in  a  paper  package  should 
be  dropped  into  the  crock.  One  should  then  leave  the  room  quickly, 
closing  the  door.  The  fumigation  should  proceed  for  not  less  than 
twenty-four  hours.  Ventilate  the  room  or  building  thoroughly  before 
reentering. 

The  Mexican  Cotton  Boll  Weevil.  This  beetle  from 
Mexico  has  spread  over  large  portions  of  the  cotton- 
growing  sections  of  the  south,  doing  great  damage. 


FIG.  153.  —  Mexican  Cotton  Boll  Weevil. 
Much  enlarged,  above ;  natural  size,  below.    (Herrick.) 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS         301 


The  young  larvae  eat  and  destroy  the  tender  inside 
parts  of  the  cotton  boll.  The  Department  of  Agri- 
culture of  the  United  States  has  a  corps  of  expert  en- 
tomologists at  work  trying  to  discover  some  practical 
means  of  destroying  the  pest. 

Plum  Curculio.  This  beetle  with  a  hump  on  his 
back  not  only  causes  plums  to  drop  before  they  are 
ripe  and  makes  cherries 
wormy,  but  it  does  great 
damage  to  the  apple  crop. 
The  female  lays  her  egg 
under  the  skin  of  the  fruit, 
and  then  makes  a  crescent- 
shaped  cut  in  the  skin 
around  the  point  where 
the  egg  is  deposited.  This 
cut  serves  to  loosen  the 
skin  so  that  the  egg  may 
not  be  crushed  with  the 
growing  fruit  pulp.  Nu- 
merous sprayings  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  with  Paris 
green  in  the  early  spring  may  poison  the  female  before 
her  eggs  are  laid.  If  the  infested  trees  are  jarred  by 
a  sharp  blow  from  a  padded  club,  in  the  early  morning 
when  the  beetles  are  torpid,  they  may  loosen  their  hold 
on  the  tree  and  fall  to  the  ground.  Sheets  should  be 
spread  under  the  tree  to  collect  the  beetles,  that  they 
may  be  destroyed. 

Bugs  and  Lice  (Hemiptera,  half-winged). — Many  peo- 
ple call  all  insects  bugs,  but  the  term  is  properly 
confined  to  this  order  of  insects.  They  are  characterized 
by  having  the  mouth  parts  transformed  into  a  bill  or 
beak  that  fits  it  for  sucking  juices  from  plants  and 


FIG.  154. — The  Plum  Curculio. 

a,  the  larva;  b,  the  pupa;  c,  the  beetle;  d,  cur- 
culio,  on  young  plum.  The  straight  lines 
indicate  the  average  natural  length. 


302          INSECTS  AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 

animals,  Some  have  their  wings  thickened  at  the  base, 
the  outer  portion  being  membranous.  This  gives  the 
name  Hemiptera.  Still  other  members  of  this  order 
have  two  regular  wings,  and  others  have  no  wings 
at  all. 

Many  bugs  emit  a  very  disagreeable  odor.  Their 
metamorphosis  is  incomplete,  there  being  no  quiet 
pupa  stage. 

This  order  includes  the  cicada,  or  so-called  "  locust," 
also  the  seventeen-year  locust  that  makes  a  sound  that 
we  are  all  familiar  with  in  the  hot  dog  days,  hence  it  is 
often  called  the  dog-day  harvest  fly;  lice,  infesting 
both  plants  and  animals;  scales;  bedbugs;  leaf 
hoppers ;  chinch  bugs ;  squash  bugs ;  skippers ;  and 
many  others. 

Plant  Lice  (Aphides).  These  may  be  found  on  all 
parts  of  plants,  where  they  often  do  great  damage  by 
sucking  the  juices.  They  are  usually  more  or  less 
pear-shaped,  green,  white,  or  gray  in  color.  They  are 
held  in  check  under  ordinary  conditions  by  their 
enemies.  One  of  these,  a  parasitic,  four-winged  fly, 
lays  its  eggs  under  the  skin  of  the  insect,  eventually 
eating  out  the  insides,  and  another,  the  lady  bug, 
devours  great  quantities  of  the  lice.  When  their  na- 
tural enemies  are  for  any  reason  reduced  in  numbers, 
the  aphides  become  a  great  pest.  The  green  bug  that 
did  such  great  damage  in  the  summer  of  1906  was  a 
plant  louse  that  developed  in  numbers  sufficient  to 
destroy  the  small  grain  crop  in  some  sections  of  the 
country.  Nearly  every  plant  has  some  species  of 
plant  louse  infesting  it.  Some  are  on  the  leaves,  some 
on  the  stem,  and  others  make  galls  on  the  roots  of  the 
orchard  trees  and  of  grape  vines.  Plant  lice  may  be 


INSECTS   AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


303 


destroyed  by  spraying  with  a  kerosene  emulsion  made 
according  to  the  following  formula  : 

Hard  soap,  or  soft  soap,  one  pound 
Kerosene,  two  gallons 
Water,  soft,  one  gallon 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  boiling  water;  remove  the  kettle 
from  the  stove  and  add  the  kerosene  while  the  water 
is  still  boiling  hot;  churn  the  mixture  with  a  spray 
pump  until  it  gets  to  be  a  soft,  butterlike  mass.  For 
use  this  may  be  diluted  with  five  to  ten  times  the  amount 
of  water.  Since  the 
members  of  this  order 
are  not  biting  but  suck- 
ing insects,  it  is  useless 
to  use  poisons  of  any 
kind  on  the  leaves. 

Scales  and  Mealy  Bugs, 
There  are  different 
kinds  of  scales  that  in- 
fest orchard  and  other 
trees,  but  the  most  de- 
structive and  widespread 
is  the  San  Jose  scale,  so 
called  because  it  first 
appeared  at  San  Jose, 
Cal.  This  is  a  kind  of 
plant  louse  that  usually 

remains    On    One    portion 

of  the  stem  of  the  tree,    m-  male  scale;  /•  female  scale=  ?•  y°uns 

.  a,  young  insect. 

and,  in  the  case  of  the 

female,  does  not  move  after  it  once  settles  down.     It 

covers  the  stems  with  a  whitish    coating   that    might 


-y 


f- 


FIG.  155.  —  San  Jose  Scale  Insect. 

le=  ?•  y° 

Enlarged. 


3°4 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


be  mistaken  for  whitewash  or  ashes,  but  on  close  ex- 
amination with  a  magnifying  glass,  its  true  character 
is  plainly  seen.  Orchards  should  be  inspected  care- 
fully for  this  insect,  and  no  trees  should  be  planted  that 
have  any  scales  on  them.  The  best  remedy  for  the 
scale  is  to  spray  the  trees  in  the  winter  with  kerosene 
or  use  the  lime-sulphur  wash,  which  may  be  made 
according  to  the  following  formula  : 

Quicklime,  20  pounds 
Sulphur,  15  pounds 
Water  to  make  50  gallons 

Boil  the  lime  and  sulphur  one  to  two  hours  with  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  then  dilute  to  50  gallons  with 
boiling  water.  Do  not  let  the  mixture  become  cold; 
spray  dormant  trees  while  the  mixture 
is  yet  warm.  Lime-sulphur  mixture 
may  now  be  obtained  on  the  market 
in  form  ready  to  use  by  the  addition 
of  water. 

Mealy  bugs  are  present  in  green- 
houses and  hotbeds,  and  in  the  south 
on  outdoor  plants.  They  are  a  little 
soft-bodied,  oval  bug  with  a  white 
fringe  bordering  the  body.  If  the 
plant  infested  by  these  is  hardy  enough, 
-The  Squash  a  kerosene  emulsion  spray  may  be  ap- 
plied to  get  rid  of  them. 

The  Squash  Bug.       Whenever 


FIG.  156.- 

Bug. 

a,    mature    female.     (After 

Chittenden,  Div.  of  Ento-     ,  r        .  -  -          .. 

moiogy,  Dept.  of  Agrkui-  bers    ot    the    cucumber  lamily,  such 

as     squash,     pumpkin,     melon,     and 

cucumber,    are    planted,    this    bug   gives    considerable 

trouble.     The  adult  insect  is  dirty  dark  brown  above 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS         305 

and  mottled  yellowish  beneath.  The  young  attack 
the  leaves  near  the  ground.  They  appear  in  June 
and  successive  broods  hatch  till  October,  when  they 
hibernate.  If  the  vines  are  collected  in  the  fall  and 
burned,  large  numbers  may  be  killed.  Land  plaster 
soaked  with  kerosene  or  with  turpentine  will  act  as 
a  repellent  and  drive  them  away  from  the  vines. 

The  Chinch  Bug.     This  bug  does  great  damage  annu- 
ally to  the  wheat  and  the  corn  crop.     The  adult  insect  is 
less  than  one  sixth  of  an  inch 
in    length.     It    is    blackish 
in    color    with    conspicuous 
snowy    white    wing"  covers. 
The  young  are  red  in  color. 
They  do  not  thrive  in  damp 
weather,  but  in  dry  weather 
the   bugs   that  have   hiber- 


nated    in^  trash    about    the  FIG.  157-  — Chinch  Bugs, 

fields  or  in  cracks  of  fences 

come  out  and  lay  their  eggs  in  large  numbers  in  the 
mellow  earth.  They  hatch  out  just  as  the  grain  is 
in  a  succulent  condition  and  the  young  do  great  damage. 
No  satisfactory  remedy  has  been  found  for  this  pest, 
although  many  may  be  killed  in  furrows  plowed  across 
their  line  of  march. 

The  Bedbug.  This  ill-smelling  insect  finds  its  way  into 
houses  and  hotels  of  all  classes.  Persistent  daily  in- 
spection, cleanliness,  and  a  liberal  application  to  all 
cracks  and  hiding  places  of  a  mixture  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate in  alcohol  and  turpentine  will  keep  this  insect 
out  of  the  home. 

Flies  (Diptera,  two-winged). --This  large  order  of 
common  insects  includes  the  common  house  flies, 

5f .  &  H.  AG. 20 


3°6 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


fleas,  and  mosquitoes,  although  fleas  are  usually 
placed  in  an  order  by  themselves.  As  is  indicated  by 
the  name  Diptera,  they  have  but  two  wings  (one  pair). 
Some  members  of  the  order  have  no  wings,  or  such 
small  ones  that  they  cannot  be  used  for  flight.  The 
mouth  parts  are  adapted  for  piercing  or  sucking. 
The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 

Common  House  Fly,  the  Typhoid  Fly.  —  If  this  insect 
could  be  seen  through  a  large  magnifying  glass  at  all 

times,  it  would  not  be  so 
common  in  the  home 
and  on  the  food  that 
we  eat,  for  the  house 
fly  is  a  disgusting-look- 
ing creature,  its  legs 
being  covered  with  bris- 
tles which  are  usually 
covered  with  filth  and 
often  with  disease  germs. 
A  few  flies  that  live 
over  the  winter  in  the 
house  or  stable  come 
out  in  the  spring.  The 
female  lays  her  eggs  in 
manure  of  any  kind  or 
in  some  decaying  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  matter.  She  will  also  lay  eggs  on 
fresh  meat  or  in  open  wounds.  In  twenty-four  hours 
the  eggs  hatch  and  the  maggot,  or  larval,  stage  is  begun. 
This  stage  lasts  about  one  week.  The  skin  of  the 
larva  then  hardens  and  turns  brown,  forming  the  coat 
for  the  pupa.  It  remains  in  the  pupal  stage  for  about 
one  week  and  then  emerges  as  a  fly. 


FIG.  158. —Typhoid  Fly. 
a,  natural  size;  b,  magnified. 


Much  sickness  is  occasioned  by  the  spread  of  disease 
germs  through  the  fly.  The  large  death  loss  from  ty- 
phoid fever  among  the  soldiers  of  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War  was  doubtless  occasioned  through  the  spread 
of  the  typhoid  germs  by  flies.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
scientists  may  discover  some  means  of  ridding  us  of 
this  pest,  but  till  such  time  all  should  lessen  the  evil 
by  excluding  the  fly  from  the  home  and  by  destroying 
their  breeding  places  as  far  as  possible.  The  house 
and  all  places  where  food  is  kept  should  be  screened, 
and  the  flies  excluded. 

Note.  — The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  published  several  bul- 
letins giving  methods  for  exterminating  the  fly  pest  or  of  lessening  its 
evil  results.  Many  experiment  stations  have  also  issued  special  bulle- 
tins on  this  subject. 

Other  Varieties.  There  are  many  varieties  of  flies 
besides  the  common  house  fly,  but  they  all  have  a  simi- 
lar life  history.  The  horsefly  punctures  the  skin  before 
sucking.  The  blow  fly  of  meat  is  a  blackish  fly  with 
bluish  abdomen,  laying  its  eggs  in  meat.  The  green 
bottle  fly  incubates  in  manure  in  pastures.  The  blue 
bottle  fly  appears  very  early  in  spring  and  lays  its  eggs 
in  meat.  The  screw  worm  fly  resembles  the  green 
bottle  fly,  but  lays  its  eggs  in  wounds  or  in  the  nostrils 
of  cattle  and  even  of  human  beings.  The  active  mag- 
gots often  cause  sickness  and  sometimes  death.  The 
horn  fly  clusters  at  the  base  of  the  horns  of  cattle. 
Stock  may  be  protected  from  flies  by  spraying  with  a 
mixture  of  three  parts  of  fish  oil  with  one  part  kero- 
sene. Fish  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  and  oil  of  tar  may  each 
be  used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  application  must 
be  renewed  at  least  every  other  day  to  be  effective. 


308 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


FIG.  159.  — Hessian  Fly. 


The  Hessian  Fly.     This  is  one  of  the  worst  of  in- 
sect pests  of  the  wheat  crop.     It  is  supposed  to  have 

been  brought  to 
this  country  in  the 
bedding  of  the 
Hessian  soldiers. 
It  is  a  slender  fly 
with  long  legs,  the 
body  being  about 
one  sixth  of  an 
inch  in  length. 
It  develops  best 
in  cool  moist 
weather.  The  pupa  of  this  fly  is  found  inside  the  sheath 
and  near  the  joint  of  the  wheat  stem.  The  pupa  case  is 
brown  and  resembles  a  flaxseed,  on  which  account  it  is 
sometimes  called  the  flaxseed  stage.  It  is  before  this  flax- 
seed  stage  that  the  damage  is  done  by  the  larva,  weakening 
the  straw  at  the  point  that  the  flaxseed  is  placed.  When 
the  head  of  the  wheat  fills  out  and  becomes  too  heavy 
for  the  weakened  straw  to  sustain,  a  wind  may  cause 
whole  fields  infested  by  the  Hessian  fly  to  go  down. 
Fall  plowing  will  turn  under  the  stubble  and  prevent  a 
late  brood  from  growing.  In  the  south  late  planting 
of  wheat  has  lessened  the  damage  by  giving  no  wheat 
stems  for  the  larvae  to  find  when  they  are  most  desired. 
The  Mosquito.  This  member  of  the  order  is  not 
only  exceedingly  troublesome,  but  it  has  been  found 
to  be  the  means  of  conveying  yellow  fever  and  malaria. 
Its  mouth  parts  are  shaped  into  a  long  bill.  This 
consists  of  a  set  of  piercing  instruments,  by  means  of 
which  the  female  punctures  the  skin  and  sucks  the  blood 
of  her  victim.  The  male  mosquito  is  harmless.  The 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS         309 

life  history  of  the  mosquito  should    be    understood  in 
order    to    combat    the    insect  effectively.     A  mass  of 


FIG.  1 60.  —  Metamorphosis  of  the  Mosquito. 
Eggs,  larva,  later  stage  on  the  raft,  and  adult.     (Burnett.) 

eggs  somewhat  boat-shaped  is  laid  in  the  water.  In 
a  few  days  they  hatch  into  larvae,  called  wigglers. 
The  wiggler  breathes  by  means  of  a  tube  which  at 
intervals  is  thrust  up  into  the  air  through  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  After  changing  the  skin  two  or 


310         INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 

three  times,  it  changes  into  the  pupal  stage.  This  is 
characterized  by  having  two  tubular,  leaflike  appendages 
extending  from  the  thorax,  which  it  thrusts  above  the 
surface  of  the  water  to  get  a  supply  of  air.  In  a  few 
more  days  its  pupal  skin  bursts  and  the  mosquito 
emerges,  using  the  pupal  skin  as  a  kind  of  raft  on  which 
to  float  till  its  wings  are  dry.  Rough  water  or  flowing 
water  upsets  the  raft,  and  the  mosquito  is  drowned. 
The  mosquito  has  many  natural  enemies.  Fish  eat 
large  numbers  of  the  wigglers.  The  dragon  fly  eats 
them  as  larvae  and  in  the  imago  form.  A  thin  film  of 
kerosene  or  crude  petroleum  on  water  will  kill  the  wig- 
glers when  they  attempt  to  get  air.  This  is  one  of  the 
methods  used  to  destroy  them  in  swamps  and  small 
lakes.  A  small  amount  of  water,  such  as  may  be  con- 
tained in  a  discarded  fruit  can,  may  be  the  breeding 
place  of  hundreds  of  mosquitoes.  Rain  barrels  should 
be  kept  covered  and  low  places  near  the  home  should 
be  drained  if  we  would  decrease  this  pest. 

Fleas.  Fleas  cannot  fly,  but  they  have  very  strong 
legs  that  enable  them  to  jump  great  distances.  The 
eggs  of  the  flea  are  laid  in  the  hair  or  fur  of  a  dog,  cat, 
or  other  animal,  or  in  their  bedding.  If  on  the  hair,  they 
drop  on  the  ground  and  in  a  few  days  are  hatched.  The 
larva  lives  for  two  weeks,  and  then  enters  the  pupal  stage, 
which  lasts  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks. 

If  they  infest  the  house,  a  liberal  application  of 
Persian  insect  powder  on  carpets  and  in  any  other 
places  infested  by  them  will  usually  kill  them.  Dogs 
and  cats  should  be  washed  frequently  with  strong 
soapsuds,  or  with  one  of  the  coal  tar  dips. 

The  Botfly.  -  -  This  fly  lays  its  eggs  on  the  hair 
of  horses,  usually  on  the  front  legs.  If  then  a  horse 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS         311 

licks  the  hair  where  the  eggs  are  fastened,  they  hatch 
and  are  taken  into  the  mouth  of  the  horse.  They  soon 
find  their  way  to  the  stomach,  where  the  larvae  often  col- 
lect in  large  numbers,  fastening  themselves  to  the 
walls  of  the  stomach.  They  are  not  usually  dan- 
gerous. They  may  be  prevented  by  keeping  the  horse 
well  groomed. 

Ox  warbles  are  a  botfly  that  infest  cattle.  The  eggs 
are  fastened  to  the  hair  as  with  the  ordinary  botfly 
and  reach  the  gullet  of  the  animal  in  the  same  way. 
From  the  esophagus  the  larva  works  its  way  through 
the  tissues  till  it  comes  to  the  hide.  Here  it  makes  a 
small  hole  for  breathing  and  for  escape.  It  remains 
here  and  causes  a  tumor  to  form  under  the  skin.  These 
tumors  are  called  warbles.  In  the  early  spring  the 
larva  comes  out,  falls  to  the  ground,  and,  after  digging 
into  the  soil  a  few  inches,  changes  to  the  pupal  stage. 
After  about  a  month  it  becomes  a  fly.  The  larva 
causes  great  damage  to  hides  by  puncturing  them,  mil- 
lions of  dollars  being  lost  annually  on  this  account.  No 
satisfactory  remedy  has  been  found  for  the  warbles. 

Butterflies  and  Moths  (Lepidoptera,  scaly-winged).— 
This  order  is  characterized  by  having  the  wings  covered 
with  feathery,  overlapping  scales.  The  mouth  parts 
are  formed  into  a  tubular  tongue  which,  when  not  in 
use,  is  coiled  under  the  head.  They  pass  through  a 
complete  metamorphosis. 

Butterflies  are  distinguished  from  moths  in  a  number 
of  ways.  The  most  apparent  differences  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  (a)  The  moths  are  night  fliers  as  a  rule,  while 
butterflies  fly  in  the  daytime. 

(&)  Moths  have  thicker,  stubbier  bodies  than  the 
butterflies. 


312 


INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 


(c)  The  moth   holds   its  wings   like  a   roof  over  its 
abdomen,    when    in    repose;     the    butterfly    holds   its 
wings  vertically. 

(d)  The  pupa  of  a  moth  is  usually  inclosed  in  a  CO- 


FIG.  161.  —  Section  of  Wormy  Apple, 
a,  codling  moth;  6,  cocoon. 

coon  which  is  made  of  silken  threads ;  the  pupa  of  the 
butterfly  is  naked,  having  no  covering,  and  is  called 
a  chrysalis. 

The  Codling  Moth.  In  its  larval  state  this  is  called 
the  apple  worm.  It  does  great  damage  to  apples  by 
making  them  wormy  and  causing  them  to  fall  from  the 
tree.  In  appearance  this  moth  is  a  small,  brown-winged 
insect.  It  lays  its  tiny  eggs  on  the  young  green  apple 
toward  the  blossom  or  calyx  end,  or  on  the  leaf.  As 
soon  as  the  egg  hatches,  the  young  larva  eats  some  of 
the  tender  fruit  and  then  proceeds  to  burrow  a  hole 
to  the  core  of  the  apple,  nearly  all  entering  at  the 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 


313 


calyx.  To  get  rid  of  its  surplus  food  it  bores  a  hole 
through  the  side  of  the  apple  and  leaves  the  particles 
of  food  on  the  surface.  This  hole  furnishes  a  means  of 
exit  from  the  apple  when  the  apple  falls. 

A  thorough  spraying  with  one  of    the  arsenical  in- 
secticides will  greatly  reduce  the  destructiveness  of  the 


FIG.  162. 


Stalk  of  cotton  showing  the  egg  (e),  larva  (a),  pupa  (/>),  and  adult  of  the  cotton  worm  moth. 

(After  Herrick.) 


314         INSECTS  AND   OTHER   SMALL   ANIMALS 

codling  moth  if  given  just  as  they  hatch.  To  accomplish 
this  the  trees  should  be  thoroughly  sprayed  just  as  the 
petals  are  falling.  A  second  spraying  should  be  given 
just  as  the  calyx  commences  to  wither,  and  ten  or 
twelve  days  later  a  third  spraying.  Careful  orchardists 
spray  their  trees  frequently,  not  to  rid  their  trees  of 
this  and  other  harmful  insects  that  infest  them,  but 
to  keep  them  out  entirely.  An  early  spring  spraying 
in  addition  to  those  described  will  usually  maintain 
orchards  free  from  moths.  All  windfalls  should  be 
gathered  daily,  and  fed  to  hogs  or  other  stock  so  that 
the  worms  may  not  be  allowed  to  develop  into  moths. 

The  Cotton  Moth.  This  moth  in  the  caterpillar  form 
is  called  the  "  army  worm,"  because  of  the  large 
numbers  that  march  together  to  devastate  a  field  of 
cotton.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves  of  the  cotton 
plant.  When  hatched  into  a  caterpillar,  it  will,  if  un- 
molested, soon  eat  the  leaves,  but  its  destructive 
effects  are  largely  due  in  the  case  of  oats  to  the  fact 
that  it  eats  off  the  little  stems  of  the  panicle  that  sup- 
port the  grains. 

The  cabbage  worm  eats  cabbage  leaves.  The  eggs 
are  laid  by  a  small  white  butterfly  in  the  spring.  Very 
little  can  be  done  to  destroy  the  adult  butterflies,  but 
if  the  worms  are  on  the  cabbage  an  early  spraying  of 
Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  will  poison  the  larvae. 
Later  the  cabbage  leaves  may  be  covered  with  flour, 
which  largely  prevents  the  destruction  of  the  leaves  by 
the  worm. 

Bees    and   Ants    (Hymenoptera,    membrane-winged). 

-This     order,    including     bees,    ants,    saw-flies,    gall 

flies,  ichneumon  flies,  and  the  imported  currant  worm, 

is  characterized  by  having  two  pairs  of  membranous 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS         315 


wings  with  but  comparatively  few  veins.  The  head 
is  large  and  the  mouth  parts  are  formed  for  biting  and 
lapping.  The  female  possesses  a  sting,  an  ovipositor, 
or  a  saw.  The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 

Imported  Currant  Worm.  This  is  not  a  true  cater* 
pillar,  but  is  the  larva 
of  a  small  fly.  The 
larvae  eat  the  leaves  of 
the  currant  and  of  the 
gooseberry.  When  full 
grown  it  spins  a  cocoon 
in  the  rubbish  or  on  the 
stems  or  leaves  of  the 
bushes.  Paris  green  may 
be  used  as  an  insecticide 
before  the  fruit  is  ripe, 
but  later  in  the  season  dry  hellebore  may  be  dusted  on 
the  leaves  when  they  are  wet. 

Bees  live  in  colonies.     In  their  wild  state  they  find 
their  homes  in  the  trunks  of  trees,  in  rock  crevices,  or 


FIG.  163.  —  Imported  Currant  Worm. 
(After  Washburn.) 


Worker 


Queen 
FIG.  164.  —  Honeybees. 


Drone 


in  other  cavities,  but  man  has  provided  hives  as  the 
homes  of  bee  colonies  so  that  they  may  be  manipulated, 
and  the  stores  of  honey  easily  collected  for  his  profit. 
A  colony  of  bees  consists  normallv  of  a  queen  bee, 


316         INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 

the  mother  of  the  colony;  thousands  of  worker  bees, 
which  are  undeveloped  females  that  lay  no  eggs,  but 
gather  the  stores  of  honey  and  care  for  the  young; 
and,  during  a  part  of  the  year,  males,  which  are  called 
drones,  to  the  number  of  a  few  hundred.  These  three 
classes  may  be  easily  recognized  in  the  colony.  The 
queen  bee  has  a  longer  and  more  slender  body  than  the 
drones  or  the  workers.  The  drones  are  larger  than 
the  workers.  Drones  are  stingless.  The  queen  and 
the  workers  have  stings,  but  the  queen  uses  hers  only 
on  other  young  queens,  so  that  the  worker  bee's  sting 
is  the  only  one  to  be  feared. 

The  combs  are  made  of  hexagonal  cells  of  somewhat 
irregular  size  and  shape.  The  comb  includes  cells 
for  the  development  of  brood  and  young  bees  and  for 
the  storage  of  honey.  The  cells  used  in  rearing  worker 
bees  are  about  one  fifth  inch  across,  and  those  used  for 
rearing  drones  and  for  storing  honey  are  about  one 
fourth  inch  across.  Artificial  foundations  for  combs, 
made  from  beeswax,  are  provided  by  bee  keepers  so 
that  the  location  and  -size  of  the  combs  may  be  under 
his  control. 

A  hive  of  bees  ready  for  work  in  the  spring  has  its 
thousands  of  workers  bringing  in  early  pollen  and  honey. 
The  queen  begins  to  lay  eggs  in  the  worker  cells.  These 
in  time  develop  into  white  larvae,  which,  growing,  fill 
the  cells.  The  cells  are  then  capped  over.  In  twenty- 
one  days  after  the  egg  is  laid,  the  worker  bee  emerges 
from  the  cell.  It  is  usually  two  weeks  later  before  she 
does  any  honey  gathering.  As  the  colony  increases 
and  honey  is  stored,  the  queen  begins  to  lay  eggs  in  the 
larger  cells.  These  develop  into  males.  After  a  time 
the  workers  begin  to  build  queen  cells  over  certain  fe- 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS         317 

male  larvae.  These  are  larger  than  any  other  cells  in 
the  hive  and  hang  on  the  hive  vertically.  In  appear- 
ance they  resemble  a  peanut,  When  the  larvae  in 
these  cells  have  grown  to  full  size  they  are  sealed  up 
and  the  colony  is  ready  for  swarming. 

Swarming  consists  in  the  departure  of  the  queen  bee 
with  a  part  of  the  workers.  They  leave  to  seek  a  new 
home  and  to  continue  raising  brood  and  storing  honey. 
They  leave  behind  all  the  stores  of  honey  except  what 
they  can  carry  in  their  honey  stomachs  and  the  brood 
with  some  queen  cells  from  which  will  come  the  new 
queen  for  the  part  of  the  colony  of  workers  left  behind. 
After  about  nine  days  the  new  queens  are  ready  to 
come  from  their  cells.  The  first  one  to  emerge  is  the 
queen  of  the  colony,  and  she  usually  destroys  the  queens 
in  the  remaining  cells. 

In  about  five  days  the  queen  leaves  the  hive  to  mate 
with  a  drone  in  the  air.  She  soon  returns  and  egg  lay- 
ing is  commenced.  The  queen  does  not  leave  the  hive 
except  at  mating  time  and  when  the  colony  swarms. 
At  the  end  of  the  honey  season  the  drones  are  driven 
out  or  carried  out  of  the  hive  by  the  workers. 

Bees  collect  three  different  materials, — nectar  from 
which  the  honey  is  made,  pollen  of  plants  that  fur- 
nishes a  part  of  the  food  for  the  larvae,  and  a  resinous 
substance  called  propolis,  or  bee  glue,  that  is  used  in 
stopping  crevices  in  the  hive  and  in  cementing  the  wax 
cells  together. 

The  worker  gathers  nectar  from  many  kinds  of  wild 
and  cultivated  plants.  This  it  laps  up  with  its  long 
tongue,  then  passes  it  into  the  first  stomach  or  crop. 
Here  the  nectar  undergoes  some  changes,  preventing 
fermentation,  and  then  such  part  of  it  as  the  bee  does 


3i8         INSECTS  AND   OTHER   SMALL   ANIMALS 

not  need  for  its  own  sustenance  is  regurgitated  into  the 
honey  cells  of  the  comb. 

The  pollen  and  the  propolis  are  collected  in  recep- 
tacles on  the  outside  of  the  hind  legs.  These  pockets 
are  filled  by  a  rapid  movement  of  the  mandibles  and  of 
the  other  legs.  The  wax  is  an  excretion  from  the  body 
which  collects  in  little  scales  on  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen. 

The  work  of  the  hive  is  nicely  apportioned  among 
its  inmates.  Normally  the  egg  laying  is  done  by  the 
queen.  All  of  the  inside  work,  such  as  wax  building, 
care  of  the  brood,  and  cleaning,  is  done  by  the  younger 
workers  —  those  less  than  seventeen  days  old.  The 
work  of  nectar  and  pollen  gathering  is  performed  by 
the  older  workers. 

The  general  prime  object  of  the  beekeeper  is  to  make 
as  large  and  as  strong  a  colony  of  bees  as  possible  for 
each  hive  before  the  large  supply  of  nectar  is  produced, 
so  that  when  the  flowers  are  in  full  bloom  a  large  amount 
of  honey  may  be  obtained.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
feed  the  bees  a  sugar  sirup  so  that  a  vigorous  brood 
may  be  raised  early  in  the  season. 

The  life  of  the  worker  bee  is  usually  not  more  than 
eight  months.  Her  active  life  wears  out  her  wings 
and  makes  it  impossible  for  her  to  collect  materials 
for  honey.  The  queen  may  live  two  to  five  years. 

In  the  north  the  hives  should  be  well  stored  with 
honey  in  the  fall  so  as  to  furnish  the  bees  with  food  for 
the  winter.  At  this  time  the  hives  are  usually  closed 
and  put  in  a  dark  cellar  or  other  storage  free  from  the 
extremes  of  temperature.  There  the  bees  will  live  in  a 
quiescent  state  till  the  next  spring. 

Besides  the  common  black  or  brown  bees  we  have 


INSECTS   AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 


319 


the  Italians,  Caucasians,  Cyprians,  Syrians,  and  Carnio- 
lans.  The  black  bees  are  very  spiteful,  difficult  to 
handle,  and  are  not  first-class  workers.  The  Italians 
are  a  great  improvement.  Nearly  all  of  the  bees  kept 
in  this  country  are  Italians  or  some  cross  of  the  Italians 
with  the  black  bees.  They  are  not  so  difficult  to  handle 
and  are  more  profitable.  The  Caucasians  and  the 
Carniolans  are  still  more  gentle  than  the  Italians. 

Ichneumon  Flies.  -  -  The  ichneumon  flies  represent 
a  class  of  flies  belonging  to  the  order  Hymenoptera 
that  are  of  great 
service  in  destroy- 
ing certain  inju- 
rious moths  and 
otherinsects.  They 
lay  their  eggs  in 
the  body  of  a  moth 
or  other  insect;  the 
larva  lives  on  the 
juices  of  its  host 
and  may  even  pass 
the  pupa  stage 
within  its  body. 
Figure  165  shows  an  ichneumon  fly  that  bores  a  hole 
with  its  ovipositor  in  wood  and  deposits  its  egg  in  the 
burrow  of  some  insect  tunneling  in  the  wood.  When 
the  egg  is  hatched,  the  larva  seeks  the  pupa  of  the  other 
insect  and  lives  upon  it. 

SPIDERS   (Arachnida) 

This  large  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  includes 
spiders,  scorpions,  tarantulas,  and  mites.  Let  it  be 
remembered  that,  although  these  animals  are  many  of 


FIG.  165. — Ichneumon  Fly. 


320         INSECTS  AND  OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 

them  very  small,  they  are  not  insects  and  of  course  are 
not  bugs. 

The  bodies  of  animals  of  this  class  are  generally 
divided  into  two  segments  and  have  four  pairs  of  legs. 
They  have  no  antennae  and  but  a  partial  metamor- 
phosis, or  none  at  all.  The  animals  of  this  class,  except 
the  mites,  give  farmers  very  little  trouble. 

Mites. --These  little  animals  have  the  appearance 
of  having  the  whole  body  included  in  one  sac-like  piece. 
When  they  are  full  of  the  blood  of  the  animal  to  which 
they  have  attached  themselves,  these  sacks  become 
quite  distended.  The  chicken  mites,  or  chicken  spiders, 
are  a  great  pest  in  the  poultry  house.  These  little 
mites  remain  in  cracks  and  crevices  in  the  poultry 
house  during  the  day,  but  at  night,  while  the  poul- 
try are  roosting,  they  come  out  to  suck  the  blood 
of  their  victims.  They  sometimes  remain  in  hiding 
on  the  body  of  the  chicken  where  the  feathers  are 
thick. 

If  the  roosts  and  interior  of  the  poultry  house  are 
well  soaked  with  cresol  or  with  kerosene,  these  trouble- 
some mites  will  be  exterminated. 

Ticks.  --These  animals  are  like  mites,  but  are  usually 
much  larger. 

The  southern  cattle  tick  is  a  parasite  on  cattle,  and 
is  the  means  of  conveying  the  disease  known  as  the 
Texas  fever  from  one  animal  to  another. 

When  the  female  tick  is  ready  to  lay  her  eggs,  she 
drops  from  the  animal  to  which  she  has  attached  her- 
self and  deposits  them  on  the  ground.  The  eggs  soon 
develop  into  seed  ticks,  which  fasten  themselves  to 
cattle  that  may  be  within  reach.  Here  the  seeds  re- 
main till  they  mature.  Passing  the  cattle  through 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS 


321 


vats  filled  with  one  of  the  coal  tar  dips  of  proper  strength 
will  destroy  the  seeds  and  the  ticks. 


FIG.  166.  —  Southern  Cattle  Tick  and  Eggs. 
Above,  magnified;  below,  natural  size.     (Herrick.) 

The  so-called  sheep  tick  is  not  a  tick,  but  is  a  wingless 
fly  which  passes  its  entire  life  on  the  sheep.  By  careful 
government  inspection  and  compulsory  dipping  this  pest 
has  been  largely  eliminated. 

ANIMALS  IN  OTHER  CLASSES 

Toads.  --These  homely  animals  are  of  great  benefit 
to  the  farmer  and  gardener.  They  are  entirely  harm- 


M.  &  II    AC. 


322          INSECTS   AND   OTHER   SMALL  ANIMALS 

less  and  live  almost  entirely  on  insects,  worms,  and 
spiders,  an  incredible  number  of  these  being  consumed 
by  the  toad  in  twenty-four  hours.  He  fills  his  stomach 
four  times  each  day,  and  of  all  the  insects  eaten,  nearly 
three  fourths  are  harmful.  If  possible  these  helpful 
animals  should  be  increased  in  number.  Their  adult 
life  is  spent  on  the  land,  under  a  stone  or  in  a  hole  in 
the  ground  during  the  daytime,  but  in  active  service 
at  night.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  long  strings  attached  to 
the  grass  or  weeds  in  ponds  or  puddles  of  water.  The 
eggs  hatch  into  tadpoles,  or  polliwogs,  which  breathe 
in  the  water  by  means  of  gills. 

The  polliwogs  soon  develop  hind  legs,  then  fore  legs, 
and  lastly  true  lungs,  enabling  them  to  breathe  in  the 
air.  They  then  leave  the  water  for  the  land. 

Birds.  —  Nearly  all  birds  when  young  in  the  nest 
are  insectivorous,  the  mother  bird  catching  the  insects 
and  feeding  the  young.  Some  birds  are  insectivorous 
also  throughout  their  lives,  others  live  on  fruits  and 
grains,  and  others  on  larger  forms  of  animal  life.  All 
birds  have  a  favorite  diet,  but  if  for  any  reason  the 
food  of  their  choice  is  not  abundant,  they  will  sustain 
life  on  other  food. 

Among  the  most  useful  wild  birds  to  farmers  are  the 
following:  robin,  quail,  or  bobwhite,  bluebird,  phcebe, 
house  wren,  barn  swallow,  meadow  lark,  grass  finch, 
chickadee,  downy  woodpecker,  yellow  hammer,  or 
flicker,  and  night  hawk.  Such  birds  should  be  protected 
in  every  way  and  should  be  encouraged  to  multiply. 

There  are  a  few  birds  that  do  more  harm  than  good, 
and  these  should  be  held  in  check. 

The  English  sparrow  has  so  increased  in  numbers 
that  it  has  become  a  pest,  and,  besides,  has  driven  away 


INSECTS  AND   OTHER  SMALL  ANIMALS         323 


many  more  desirable  birds.  This  bird  lives  almost 
entirely  on  grain,  and  it  should  therefore  be  sup- 
pressed. The  cat- 
bird is  a  fruit 
eater,  and  the 
crow  destroys 
much  corn  during 
the  spring  days 
following  its 
planting.  Their 
numbers  should 
be  diminished. 

Hawks  and 
owls  often  carry 
off  young  chick- 
ens, hence  should 
not  be  allowed  to 

increase    in     num-    FIG.  167. — English  Sparrow,  Male  and  Female,  tak- 
Ko,  Hixrlc    V,rM*r          in&  Possession  of  Nesting  Boxes  provided  for  Native 

bers.       UW1S,  HOW-        Birds_     (Farmer-s  Bulletin,  383.) 

ever,    probably 

pay  for  a  part  of  the  loss  which  they  occasion  by  de- 
stroying field  mice. 

Gophers,  woodchucks,  rabbits,  skunks,  mice,  and 
rats  are  all  destructive  to  the  crops  of  the  farm,  but 
none  of  them  becomes  a  pest  beyond  the  control  of  the 
farmer,  though  the  total  amount  of  loss  through  them 
in  one  year  would  doubtless  be  expressed  in  many  mil- 
lions, if  it  could  be  accurately  determined. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FARM  ANIMALS 

THAT  animals  are  an  absolute  necessity  to  general 
farming  if  the  fertility  of  the  land  is  to  be  maintained 
at  reasonable  cost  has  been  frequently  referred  to  in 
the  preceding  pages.  Animals  return  to  the  land  in 
the  form  of  manure  fully  half  as  much  as  they  take  out 
of  it  as  food,  besides  furnishing  products  that  yield 
large  profits. 

The  selection,  breeding,  and  care  of  these  animals,  or 
animal  husbandry,  is,  therefore,  an  important  subject 
for  the  farmer  to  study,  even  if  he  is  only  a  general 
farmer  and  not  engaged  in  raising  animals  or  their 
products  for  commercial  purposes. 

CATTLE 

"  The  farmer  seeks  or  should  seek  an  animal  which, 
in  view  of  climate,  soil,  and  his  practice  of  husbandry, 
shall  return  him  the  largest  profit,  whether  in  the  dairy, 
under  the  yoke,  or  in  the  shambles." 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  cattle  :  the  dairy  and 
the  beef,  but  not  all  cows  are  distinctly  one  type  or  the 
other.  Some  are  what  are  known  as  general  purpose, 
or  dual  purpose,  cows ;  that  is,  animals  which  are  mem- 
bers of  a  specially  developed  milk-producing  family 
from  one  of  the  beef  breeds.  Such  cows  are  usually 
of  large  frame,  are  easily  kept  in  good  flesh,  fatten  soon 

324 


FARM  ANIMALS 


325 


when  not  milking  heavily,  and  have  large  calves,  which 
are  profitable  for  veal  or  for  growing  as  steers. 

In  addition  to  the  above-named  types,  there  are  many 
common  cows,  familiarly  termed  scrubs,  which  belong 
to  no  type,  being  neither  good  milk  producers  nor 
good  meat  producers.  The  first  cost  of  these  cows  may 
be  small,  but  they  are  the  most  expensive  in  the  end. 

THE  BEEF  TYPE 

The  aptitude  to  take  on  flesh  is  of  vital  importance 
in  this  type,  for  the  best  beef  animal  is  the  one  that 
carries  to  the  block  the  highest  excellence  and  the  most 
profit.  The  general  beef  type  animal  is  low,  broad, 
deep,  smooth,  even,  and  rectangular  in  form.  It  is  of 
great  importance,  when  considering  profits,  to  have  an 
animal  that  puts  on  a  thick,  even  covering  of  the  right 
kind  of  meat  in  the  parts  that  make  high-priced  cuts. 

The  Shorthorn,  or  Durham.  — The  most  common  beef- 
type  animal  is  the  Durham,  an  English  breed  formerly 
called  shorthorn.  As  they  produce  milk  of  good  qual- 
ity and  quantity, 
they  make  one 
of  the  best  dual 
purpose  cows 
known. 

A  breed  de- 
rived from  the 
shorthorns,  the 
Polled  (hornless) 
Durham,  origi- 
nated in  this  FIG.  ioS.  — Durham. 

country.     The  color  of  these  two  breeds    is    variable, 
being    sometimes  red,  sometimes    white,  sometimes    a 


326  FARM  ANIMALS 

combination  of  red  and  white,  and  sometimes  a  mix- 
ture of  the  two  colors,  or  roan. 

Beef  animals  of  large  bodies  were  originally  considered 
the  most  desirable,  regardless  of  age  or  of  other  quali- 
ties. The  early  breeders  of  the  shorthorn  sought  to 
develop  a  breed  that  should  have  some  refinement  of 
bone  and  early  maturing  qualities  while  still  retaining 
considerable  growthiness. 

The  Colling  brothers,  who  lived  in  England,  are  often 
spoken  of  as  the  founders  of  this  breed.  The  improve- 
ment made  by  these  men,  and  continued  by  the  Booth 
family,  Thomas  Bates,  and  Amos  Cruikshank,  dates 
from  about  the  year  1780. 

Thomas  Bates  devoted  his  energies  toward  improving 
the  dairy  qualities  of  the  breed.  In  this  he  was  quite 
successful.  We  have  many  herds  of  milking  shorthorns 
in  this  country  as  a  result  of  his  efforts  to  improve  the 
milk  production  of  shorthorns. 

Amos  Cruikshank  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  developed 
a  type  of  shorthorn  that  is  known  as  Scotch  and  is 
probably  the  most  popular  of  any  type  of  the  breed. 
The  Scotch  cattle  are  "  broad  and  thick  of  back,  deep 
and  compact  of  body,  short  of  leg,  heavy  in  flesh-pro- 
ducing quality  and  early  maturing." 

The  Herefords,  another  English  breed,  produce 
little  milk,  but  are  a  hardy  type  that  have  thriven  well 
on  western  ranges  in  the  past  thirty  years.  They  may 
be  recognized  by  their  uniformly  white  heads  and  red 
bodies.  They  are  sometimes  called  the  white  faces. 
Their  coats  are  thick  and  curly  and  the  breed  make 
good  rustlers.  They  do  not  stand  confinement  so 
well  as  the  shorthorns.  The  dewlap  is  large  and  the 
flesh  is  not  always  very  thick  on  the  rounds,  but  it  is 


FARM  ANIMALS 


327 


evenly   spread  over  the   shoulders   and   loins,   and   its 
quality  is  very  good.     Many  of  these  animals  attain 


FIG.  169.  —  Hereford. 

a  size  equal  to  that  of   the    shorthorn,  from  2000  to 
2300  pounds  in  weight. 

The  Aberdeen  Angus.  --The  past  two  decades  have 
seen  the  introduction  of  the  Angus  cattle  from  Scotland, 
sometimes  called  the  Polled  Angus  because  they  are 
hornless.  They 
are  for  this 
reason  also 
called  daddies. 
They  are  black, 
the  hair  is 
smooth,  the 
frame  is  large 
and  the  bones 
fine.  They  are 

more      CylindH-  FIG.  170.  — Aberdeen  Angus. 

cal  inform  than 

the  other  breeds  of  cattle.     The  flesh  is  very  smoothly 

placed   over   the   body  and   contains    about  the  right 


328 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  171.  —  Galloway. 


proportions  of  lean  and  fat.  They  are  great  favorites 
with  the  butchers,  as  they  dress  out  a  large  proportion 
of  meat. 

The  Galloway  is  a  breed  originating  in  Scotland,  and 

noted  espe- 
ciallyforits  har- 
diness and  the 
fine  quality  of 
its  meat.  These 
animals  are 
hornless,  and 
are  covered 
with  a  black, 
curly  coat  of 
longhair.  The 
hide  is  some- 
times used  for  robes.  The  Galloway  is  not  so  large  as 
the  breeds  heretofore  described  and  does  not  reach 
maturity  at  an 
early  age. 

The  Red 
Polled  breed 
originated  in 
England.  As 
their  name  in- 
dicates, they 
are  hornless 
and  are  red  in 
color.  They 
are  of  medium 
size  and  give  a  fair  quantity  of  milk  Some  individuals 
of  this  breed  give  a  very  good  yield  of  rich  milk  and 
they  are  prized  highly  by  those  who  desire  a  breed  that 


FIG.  172.  —  Red 


FARM  ANIMALS  329 

will  fatten  readily  when  dry  and  yet  may  be  used  as  a 
dairy  animal. 

Notes. —  The  Devon  is  a  small,  red  animal  of  the  beef  type,  although 
it  ranks  quite  well  as  a  milk  producer.  It  is  not  popular  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds,  and  has  been  much  used  for 
draft  purposes.  Devon  oxen  were  great  favorites  on  the  farms  of  the 
eastern  states  when  a  yoke  of  cattle  took  the  place  of  a  team  of  horses. 

The  Brown  Swiss 
is  one  of  the  chief 
breeds  of  Switzer- 
land. There  are  a 
few  herds  of  this 
breed  in  America, 
but  it  has  not  at- 
tained to  any  grea". 
degree  of  popularity. 
The  Brown  Swiss 
is  gray  or  brown 

with  a  meah  muzzle. 

-.  .  .  riG.  173.  —  Brown  bwiss. 

Its      disposition      is 

dull,  the  hide  is  thick,  and  the  bones  are  heavy.  As  a  milk  producer 
it  is  a  great  favorite  in  Switzerland,  but  it  has  not  proved  to  be  a  very 
economical  animal  for  either  milk  or  beef  production  under  conditions 
found  in  this  country. 

The  Simmenthal  cattle,  native  to  Switzerland  and  spotted  yellowish 
red  and  white,  are  very  much  in  evidence  in  central  Europe.  They 
are  thought  to  be  the  foundation  for  some  of  the  important  breeds  of  cattle 
found  now  throughout  the  world,  some  of  which,  by  years  of  breeding 
for  dairy  purposes,  have  developed  into  some  of  the  best  dairy  breeds. 

Breeding.  —  Good  breeding  and  continuous  good 
feeding  are  necessary  to  the  development  of  the  best 
characteristics  in  any  beef-producing  animal.  The 
steer  that  will  best  repay  fattening,  that  is,  will  lay  on 
flesh  of  the  best  quality  in  places  that  will  give  the 
highest  priced  cuts,  shows  a  blocky  frame,  stoutness  of 


330 


FARM  ANIMALS 


build,  short,  straight  legs,  wide  back  and  loin,  well- 
sprung  ribs,  fullness  back  of  the  shoulders  and  in  the 
flanks  prominent  brisket,  full  neck  vein,  wide  chest 
and  well-rounded  body,  good,  soft,  mellow  skin,  fine 
hair,  strong  vigorous  head,  clear,  full  eye,  and  quiet 
temperament.  Such  an  animal  under  good  feeding  (see 
Chapter  VIII)  should  make  a  high  block  test,  that  is, 
yield  a  high  percentage  of  valuable  cuts  of  meat. 

Cutting  Beef. — -Figure  174  shows  the  Chicago  whole- 
saler's and  retailer's  method  of  cutting  a  beef  carcass. 
The  porterhouse  and  sirloin  steaks  are  cut  from  the  loin. 

The  porterhouse 
steaks  bring  the 
highest  price  to  the 
retailer,  the  rib  roast 
and  sirloin  cuts  rank- 
ing second ;  hence 
the  animal  giving 
the  largest  propor- 
tion of  choice  cuts 

FIG.  174.  —  Cuts  of  Beef  and  Relative  Prices.  .1  •     .  -n 

at  these  points  will 

yield  the  best  price  to  the  farmer.  The  loins  and  ribs 
of  the  wholesaler's  cut,  which  correspond  to  the  above- 
named  cuts  of  the  retailer's,  also  bring  the  largest 
returns. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  by  actual  tests  that  the 
neck  piece  is  as  toothsome  and  nutritious  as  porter- 
house if  it  is  as  suitably  prepared,  but  it  brings  the 
lowest  price.  When  porterhouse  sells  for  20  cents,  the 
neck  brings  only  3  cents  a  pound. 

By-products  of  Beef. --There  are  so  many  of  these 
products  that  mention  can  be  made  of  only  a  few. 
Leather,  glue,  tallow,  oils,  soap,  fertilizers,  and  oleo- 


FARM  ANIMALS 


331 


margarine  are  among  the  most  important  manufactured 
articles  that  the  carcass  yields.  The  hides,  the  horns, 
the  hoofs,  the  hair,  the  bones,  the  blood,  —  in  short,  all 
parts  of  the  animal  are  used  in  making  some  useful 
product. 

THE  DAIRY  TYPE 

The  dairy  type  of  cattle  have  the  tendency  to  manu- 
facture their  food  into  milk.  On  account  of  this  tend- 
ency the  true  dairy  cow  has  a  spare,  angular  form. 
The  neck  is  long  and  thin,  the  shoulder  is  sharp  and  the 
hip  points  are  prominent.  The  ribs  are  long  and  of 
such  shape  as  to  make  a  deep  barrel,  giving  large  lung 
capacity  and  a  body  capable  of  holding  a  large  quantity 
of  bulky  food.  The  udder  is  large,  well  shaped,  and 
extends  up  high  between  the  legs  behind.  These  charac- 
teristics give  rise 
to  the  triple  wedge 
form  as  shown  in 
Figure  175. 

On  the  lower  side 
of  the  abdomen  are 
found  the  milk  veins 
which  take  the 
blood  from  the  ud- 
der to  the  heart. 
These  veins  are  very 
prominent  and  have  many  branches  in  the  good  dairy 
cow.  They  pass  up  into  the  body  in  holes  toward  the 
front  of  the  abdomen,  called  the  milk  wells.  Large 
milk  wells  are  an  indication  of  great  ability  in  milk 
production. 

Although  some  dairy  breeds  produce  beef  of  accept- 
able quality,   they  are  not  usually  profitable  as  beef 


FIG.  175. — Triple  Wedge. 


332 


FARM  ANIMALS 


producers.     On    the    market    the    carcasses    of    dairy 

cattle  bring  the  lowest  prices. 

The  Jersey  has  its  home  in  the  Island  of  Jersey  in 

the  English  Channel.     Here  the  cattle  have  been  bred 

pure  for  more 
than  a  cen- 
tury. Since 
1789  it  has 
been  unlawful 
to  bring  to  the 
Isle  of  Jersey 
cattle  of  any 
other  breed  ex- 
cept for  imme- 

FiG.  1 76. -Jersey.  d|ate       slaugh- 

ter.  The  Jersey  has  been  bred  for  production  of  butter 
fat.  In  competitive  tests  it  has  shown  an  ability  to 
produce  a  large  quantity  of  butter  very  economically. 

The  color  of  the  Jersey  is  usually  fawn  color,  but  it 
may  be  a  squirrel  gray  or  black.  The  nose  is  usually 
dark  colored. 

There  are  more  Jerseys  in  the  United  States  than  of 
any  other  dairy  breed.  It  is  of  small  size  and  is  often 
kept  in  cities  or  villages  by  families  desiring  a  small 
cow  giving  rich  milk.  In  disposition  the  Jersey  is 
nervous  and  requires  careful  handling  for  the  best 
results. 

Note.  —  The  milk  of  the  Jersey  will  average  about  4. 5  per  cent  butter 
fat  and  often  will  go  as  high  as  6  and  7  per  cent.  The  butter  fat  glob- 
ules are  very  large  and  the  cream  made  up  of  these  globules  separates 
from  the  rest  of  the  milk  very  easily  and  completely,  leaving  the  milk 
without  cream  quite  devoid  of  richness.  The  skim  milk  has  a  watery  or 
blue  appearance. 


FARM  ANIMALS 


333 


The  Guernsey  has  its  native  home  on  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  not  far  from  the  home  of  the  Jersey.  The 
Jersey  and  the  Guernsey  are  sometimes  called  the 
Channel  Island  cattle,  and  were  formerly  known  as  the 
Alderney,  although  the  term  Alderney  is  properly  ap- 
plied to  cattle 
from  an  adjoining 
island  of  that 
name  which  are 
now  registered  as 
Guernseys.  The 
Guernseys  are 
very  similar  in 
general  conforma- 
tion and  produc- 

FiG.  177.  —  Guernsey. 


..-/*  i-<  • 

tiveness  to  the 
Jersey.  They  are 
protected  in  their  purity  by  the  same  kind  of  laws  as 
are  in  force  in  the  Island  of  Jersey.  Their  bodies  are 
somewhat  larger  and  coarser  than  the  Jerseys  and  they 
are  not  so  nervous  in  disposition.  They  are  of  a  yel- 
lowish or  reddish  fawn  color  and  usually  have  white 
markings.  The  limbs  and  the  under  part  of  the  body 
are  often  white.  The  nose  is  flesh  colored.  The  skin 
is  a  deep  yellow.  This  color  is  especially  noted  in  the 
ears  and  in  the  end  of  the  tail. 

The  best  Guernseys  give  a  large  quantity  of  very 
rich  milk.  The  cream  is  of  a  rich  yellow  color  and  when 
made  into  butter  does  not  require  the  addition  of  but- 
ter color. 

The  number  of  Guernseys  in  the  United  States 
is  not  large,  but  the  breed  is  gaining  rapidly  in  pop- 
ularity. 


334 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  178.  —  Holstein. 


The  Holstein-Friesians  are  natives  of  Holland. 
They  are  large,  black  and  white  cattle,  and  are  pro- 
ducers of  large  yields  of  milk.  The  milk  is  not  so  rich 

as  that  of  the 
breeds  hereto- 
fore described. 
It  averages 
about  3.25  per 
cent  butter  fat. 
The  fat  glob- 
ules are  very 
small  and  do 
not  rise  to  the 
surface  so  read- 
ily as  in  the  milk  containing  larger  fat  globules.  The 
milk  is  easily  digested  and  is  especially  valuable  for 
infants.  These  cattle  are  used  in  dairies  supplying 
milk  to  large  cities. 

Although  the  Holsteins  are  not  used  for  beef  pro- 
duction on  account  of  not  dressing  out  a  large  per- 
centage of  high-priced  meat,  the  calves  of  this  breed 
are  in  much  favor  for  veal. 

In  disposition  the  Holsteins  are  quiet.  They  take 
conditions  as  they  find  them  and  seem  to  be  contented, 
giving  better  results  under  adverse  circumstances  than 
any  other  dairy  breed. 

Note.  —  The  name  Holstein  is  derived  from  a  province  in  Germany 
by  this  name,  situated  about  loo  miles  east  of  Holland.  The  Dutch 
cattle  are  popular  there  as  they  are  throughout  northern  Germany. 
Friesian  is  derived  from  Friesland,  a  province  in  Holland.  The 
Dutch  black  and  white  cattle  were  imported  from  both  of  these  prov- 
inces and  exploited  as  separate  breeds  in  the  United  States,  one  the 
Holstein  and  the  other  the  Friesian.  When  the  breeders  found  that 


FARM   ANIMALS 


335 


the  two  breeds  had  the  same  origin,  namely,  Holland,  they  united  and 
called  the  breed  the  Holstein-Friesian.  More  properly,  it  should  be 
named  as  it  is  in  Europe,  the  Friesian. 

Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
Holstein-Friesian  breed.  They  are  characterized  by 
having  a  broad  belt  of  white  extending  about  the  body 
otherwise  black.  They  have  no  qualities  that  make 
them  especially  valuable  to  dairymen  and  are  bred 
largely  because  of  the  novelty  of  their  marking. 

The  Ayrshire  is  a  breed  originated  in  Ayr,  a 
county  in  southwestern  Scotland.  The  Ayrshire  cow 
is  a  good  milk  producer,  but  the  milk  is  not  rich  in  but- 
ter fat.  The  fat  globules  are  small,  and  the  milk  con- 
tains just  about  the  correct  proportions  of  curd-form- 
ing substances  to  make  cheese.  On  this  account,  the 
Ayrshires  are 
largely  used  to 
furnish  milk  for 
cheese  produc- 
tion. These 
animals  are  not 
so  strictly  of  the 
dairy  type  as  the 
others  described. 
They  put  on  a 
good  supply  of 
meat  and  are  more  valuable  to  the  butcher  than  other 
dairy  breeds.  Their  color  is  red,  brown,  or  white. 
Their  disposition  is  timid,  a  characteristic  especially 
notable  in  the  bulls. 

The  Kerry  cattle  originated  in  western  Ireland. 
They  are  the  smallest  of  any  breed.  The  Dexter- 
Kerry,  a  cross  with  the  true  Kerry,  weighs  but  400 


FIG.  179.  —  Ayrshire. 


336  FARM  ANIMALS 

pounds.  These  small  animals  are  accustomed  to  adverse 
conditions  and  produce  a  large  quantity  of  milk  for  their 
size.  Their  color  is  black.  They  are  not  found  to  any 
extent  in  America. 

Note.  —  The  French  Canadian  cattle  originated  in  the  province  of 
Quebec.  They  are  black  in  color  and  resemble  the  Jerseys  in  con- 
formation. They  are  a  rugged  breed  of  cattle,  adapted  to  roughing 
it  in  a  cold  climate.  They  give  a  good  supply  of  milk,  which  they 
produce  very  economically. 

The  Cow  as  a  Machine.  --There  can  be  no  question 
that  the  breeding  of  cattle  for  milk  production  has 
greatly  increased  the  ability  of  certain  animals  to  trans- 
form the  food  given  to  them  into  milk. 

If  one  is  selling  butter  or  milk  on  the  test,  or  the 
number  of  pounds  of  butter  fat  that  it  contains,  it  is 
good  business  sense  to  keep  such  cows  as  will  produce 
most  economically  the  product  that  one  is  selling.  A 
cow  should  be  considered  a  machine  for  the  production 
of  milk  or  butter  fat.  If  she  can  produce  400x3  pounds 
of  milk  in  a  year,  she  may  be  kept  at  a  profit;  if  she 
produces  less  than  that  amount,  she  is  probably  being 
kept  at  a  loss  and  should  be  disposed  of  regardless 
of  her  beauty  or  her  breed.  The  farmer  should  weigh 
the  milk  of  each  cow  in  his  herd  and  determine  which 
cows  are  profitable  and  should  keep  no  others.  More 
than  one  half  of  the  cows  in  many  herds  are  being  kept 
at  a  loss.  Weighing  the  milk  of  each  cow  will  determine 
which  cows  to  eliminate. 

Note.  —  Some  butter-fat  records.  The  average 'production  of 
butter  fat  for  the  cows  in  the  United  States  is  less  than  145  pounds 
each.  An  elimination  of  unprofitable  cows  would  easily  double  the 
average  production.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most  notable  rec- 
ords of  dairy  cows: 


FARM  ANIMALS 


337 


Colantha  4th's  Johanna  holds  the  world's  record  for  a  year  for  milk. 
She  is  a  Holstein  and  gave  27,432.5  pounds  of  milk  and  998  pounds 
of  butter  fat. 

The  world's  champion  Jersey  is  Jacoba  Irene,  who  gave  952 
pounds  and  1 5  ounces 
of  butter  fat  in  one  year. 
Many  consider  her  the 
greatest  dairy  cow  in  the 
world,  for  she  made  high 
records  for  three  years 
in  succession. 

The  champion  Guern- 
sey of  the  world  is  Dolly 
Dimple,  who  gave 
906.87  pounds  of  butter 
fat  in  one  year  when  she 
was  but  2!  years  old. 

Yeksa  Sunbeam,  a 
Guernsey,  had  been  the 
world's  champion  for 
some  time.  She  pro- 
duced 857.15  pounds  of 
butter  fat  in  one  year. 

The  value  of  a  dairy 
cow.  The  following 
table  shows  the  value  of 
a  dairy  cow  based  on 
production  and  cost  of 

keep.  The  table  is  made  on  the  basis  of  4  per  cent  milk;  that  is,  that 
the  milk  contains  4  per  cent  of  butter  fat.  If,  after  testing  the  milk,  it  is 
found  to  contain  more  or  less  than  4  per  cent  butter  fat,  profit  may  be 
determined  by  adding  or  subtracting  the  amount  of  such  difference  at 
27  cents  per  pound. 


FIG.  1 80.  —  Appliances  for  Weighing  Milk. 


M.  &  H.  AG.  22 


FARM  ANIMALS 


VALUE  OF  Cow,  BASED  ON  PRODUCTION  AND  COST  OF  KEEP 


i  .  Value  when  first  fresh 

$40.00 

$45.00 

$50.00 

$60.00 

$70.00 

$80.00 

$00.00 

2.  Value  for  beef  at  end  of 
life     ..:... 

$27.00 

$25-00 

$25-00 

$25.00 
7000 

$25.00 

$25.00 

$25.00 

3.  Lb.  of  milk  produced 

4000 

5000 

6000 

8000 

oooo 

10,000 

4.  Lb.  of  butter  fat    ... 

160 

200 

240 

280 

320 

360 

400 

5.  Lb.  of  skim  milk    .     .     . 

3400 

4250 

5100 

5Q50 

6800 

7650 

8500 

6.  Value  of   butter  fat   at 
27^  a  pound   .... 

$43.20 

$54-oo 

$64.80 

$75-6o 

$86.40 

t97-2o 

$108.00 

7.  Value   of  skim  milk   at 
2op  a  hundred    .     .     . 

$6.80 

$8.50 

$10.20 

$11.90 

$13-60 

$15-30 

$17.00 

[Heifer] 
8.  Value  of  calf              \Av. 
[Bull     j 

$4} 
\3-So 
$3J 

Ssl 

.  K00 
$3] 

$6] 
$3i4'50 

$81 
[5-50 

33) 

$iol 
6.50 
*3  J 

$131 

8.00 
$3  j 

$16) 

^12.00 

$8  J 

9.  Value     of     manure     at 
$1.50  a  ton     .... 

$14-50 

$15-00 

$15-50 

$16.00 

$16.50 

$17.00 

$17.50 

$38.06 

$40.00 

$42.00 

$44.00 

$46.00 

$48.00 

$50.00 

1  1  .   Cost  of  labor     .... 

$18.00 

$18.00 

$19.00 

$19.50 

$20.00 

$20.50 

$21.00 

12.   Insurance,      veterinary, 
medicine,  depreciation, 
buildings,  etc.     .     .     . 

$11.00 

$12.40 

$13-54 

$14.65 

$17-75 

$19.80 

$24.00 

13.  Value  of  all  products 

$68.00 

$81.50 

$95-oo 

$109.00 

$123.00 

$37.50 

$154-00 

14.  Total  expense    .... 

$67.00 

$70.00 

$74-57 

$78.15 

$83.75 

$88.30 

$95  .00 

15.   Profit    (keep   none   at  a 

$1.00 

$10.60 

$20.46 

$30.85 

$39.25 

$49.20 

$59.50 

Circular  No.  134,  111.,  W.  J.  Fraser,  head  of  Dairy  Division. 


FARM   ANIMALS 


339 


Care  of  Dairy  Cows.  —  Modern  methods  of  dairy- 
ing call  for  the  best  care  of  the  dairy  herd.  The  best 
conditions  demand  a  separate  building  for  the  cows 
on  the  ground  level,  with  no  manure  cellar  beneath,  the 
barn  being  light,  dry,  high,  and  roomy,  with  ample 
ventilation  provided.  Individual  stalls  wide  enough  for 
the  comfort  of  the  cow  and  the  milker  are  deemed 
essential.  Some  dairymen  object  to  any  form  of  stan- 
chion for  cows,  substituting  for  it  a  wide  strap  or  light 
chain  about  the  neck  as  allowing  more  freedom  of  move- 
ment. 

Dairy  Products. -- The  care  of  milk  and  the  manu- 
facture of  its  products,  butter  and  cheese,  especially 
butter,  are  among  the  most  important  affairs  of  the 
farm,  even  though  the  growth  of  creameries  and  cheese 
factories  is  taking  away  the  manufacture  of  the  two 
products  from  the  farm.  There  still  remain  many 
farmers  who  make  butter  for  market  and  home  con- 
sumption, but  cheese  is  now  almost  entirely  a  factory- 
made  product. 

Whether  the  butter  is  made  on  the  farm  or  in  the 
creamery,  the  milking  of  the  cows  and  the  care  of  the 
milk  are  farm  business  demanding  the  greatest  nicety 
and  pains. 

Yield  of  Milk.  —  From  what  has  been  said  of  the 
different  dairy  breeds,  we  know  that  the  amount  and 
quality  of  milk  obtained  from  a  cow  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  breed.  But  this  is  only  one  of  the  determin- 
ing factors.  Good  feeding  will  affect  the  yield  of  milk 
so  greatly  that  it  is  held  next  in  importance,  if  not 
equal  to  breed  in  affecting  results  (see  Chapter  VIII). 
The  next  factor  entering  into  the  milk  yield  is  the  care 
of  the  animal  in  housing  as  to  space,  cleanliness  of  sur- 


340  FARM  ANIMALS 

roundings,  temperature,  light,  and  ventilation.  A  last 
element  in  securing  rich  yields,  both  in  quantity  and 
quality,  is  the  milker  himself.  If  quiet,  even-tempered, 
and  gentle,  he  will  get  more  milk  than  if  the  reverse 
are  his  characteristics.  If  he  is  a  rapid  milker,  he  will 
get  more  and  richer  milk  as  a  result,  for  the  expert 
milker  gets  the  most  butter  fat  from  the  cow. 

PURE  MILK 

The  only  way  milk  can  be  kept  pure  is  through 
cleanliness.  The  barn  must  be  clean,  the  cow  must  be 
clean,  the  milker  must  be  clean,  the  utensils  must  be 
clean.  Bacteria  abound  everywhere,  in  the  dust  of 
the  barn,  on  the  animal  milked,  on  the  person  of  the 
milker,  and  unless  great  care  is  taken,  they  enter  the 
milk  in  large  numbers.  These  are  not  necessarily 
disease-producing  bacteria,  although  such  may  also 
be  present,  but  they  are  organisms  harmful  to  the  sweet- 
ness and  purity  of  milk.  They  multiply  rapidly  in 
warm  fresh  milk,  and  unless  preventive  measures  are 
taken,  soon  cause  the  milk  to  sour.  Cooling  the  milk 
while  it  is  perfectly  fresh  will  not  kill  the  germs,  but 
it  will  retard  their  growth  and  increase,  and  this  pre- 
vents its  turning  sour  so  soon.  Pasteurizing  the  milk, 
that  is,  heating  it  to  i3O°-i6o°  F.,  keeping  it  there 
25  minutes,  and  then  rapidly  cooling  it  to  50°,  will 
kill  most  of  the  germs  and  keep  the  milk  sweet  for  some 
time,  especially  if  it  is  carefully  sealed  in  air-tight  vessels. 

Composition  of  Milk.  -  -  The  average  composition 
of  the  milk  of  the  cow  in  this  country  is  as  follows  : 
water,  .875;  milk  sugar,  .0475;  fat,  .036;  casein,  .029; 
mineral  matter,  .0075  ;  albumin,  .005. 

The  fat  in  milk  is  the  constituent  that  makes  butter. 


FARM  ANIMALS 


34i 


It  floats  in  the  milk  in  globules,  varying  in  size  accord- 
ing to  the  breed  and  the  feed  and  the  individual  cow. 
The  fat  rarely  reaches  7  per  cent  of  the  bulk  of  the 
milk,  the  highest  grade  dairy  breeds,  like  the  Jersey 
and  Guernsey,  averaging  about  \\  per  cent. 

Cream.  —  When  milk  stands  for  a  short  time,  the 
fat  rises  to  the  top  in  the  form  of  cream.  Formerly 
milk  was  placed  in  shallow  vessels  and  the  cream  was 
skimmed  off  and  made  into  butter.  By  this  method 
one  fourth  of  the  butter  fat  is  lost  in  the  skimmed  milk. 
The  deep-setting  system  is  now  more  extensively  prac- 
ticed. Cans  nearly  two  feet  deep  are  used.  They 
are  set  from  12  to  24  hours  in  water  8  degrees  to  10 
degrees  above  freezing  point.  A  conical  dipper  is  used 
for  skimming,  or  a  faucet  in  the  bottom  is  opened  and 
the  skim  milk  drawn  off  and  then  the  cream.  By  this 
method  only  one  tenth  to  one  fifth  of  the  cream  is  lost 
in  the  skimmed  milk. 

The  method  most  commonly  used,  however,  and  the 
one  that  results  in  the  least  loss  of  butter  fat  is  the 
centrifugal  separator,  by  means  qf  which  the  cream  and 
milk  are  separated.  The  fresh  milk  pours  in  a  con- 
tinuous stream  into  a  revolving  bowl.  The  milk, 
being  heavier  than  cream,  is  thrown  to  the  outer  part 
of  the  bowl,  where  there  is  placed  an  opening  to  carry 
it  off.  In  the  center  is  an  opening  through  which  the 
cream  passes.  A  good  separator  loses  only  about 
.0003  of  fat  in  skim  milk  or  one  fiftieth  of  the  total 
amount  of  butter  fat. 

Casein. —-This  is  the  ingredient  in  milk  that  forms 
the  curd  when  milk  sours.  It  is  the  foundation  of 
cheese,  as  butter  fat  is  of  butter,  forming  about  one 
third  the  bulk  of  the  finished  product. 


342 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  181.  —  Milk-testing  Machine. 

Note.  —  17.6  c.c.  of  the  milk  to  be 
tested  is  put  into  a  test  bottle.  An  equal 
amount  of  sulphuric  acid  is  added.  This 
dissolves  all  the  solids  of  the  milk  except- 
ing fat.  The  mixture  is  shaken  thoroughly 
until  it  becomes  of  an  even  dark  brown 
color.  The  bottle  is  then  put  into  the 
machine  and  is  made  to  revolve  rapidly 
for  five  minutes.  The  machine  is  then 
stopped  and  the  bottle  filled  to  the  neck 
with  hot  water,  then  whirled  again  for 
three  minutes,  then  filled  again  with  hot 
water  to  about  the  3  mark  on  the  neck. 


c.c. 


\ 


a 
rt 


Testing  Milk.  —  All  creameries  now  pay  for  their 
milk  on  the  basis  of  the  percent- 
age of  butter  fat  present  as  re- 
vealed by  the  Babcock  test.  This 
is  a  device  invented  by  Dr.  Bab- 
cock  of  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station. 


c.c. 


FIG.  182. 


1 

PQ 


It  is  now  whirled   again 


FARM   ANIMALS  343 

for  two  minutes,  then  taken  out  and  the  percentage  of  fat  read  from  the 
neck  of  the  bottle,  which  has  a  scale  graduated  from  o  to  10. 

The  dairyman  who  wishes  to  know  whether  individual 
cows  are  profitable,  or  the  comparative  value  of  his 
different  cows,  can  get  this  information  by  weighing  and 
testing  the  milk  for  a  given  period.  If  the  test  of  a 
given  cow  taken  successively  shows  an  average  of  5.2  per 
cent,  this  means  that  in  1000  pounds  of  her  milk  there 
are  52  pounds  of  butter  fat.  This  will  make  about  60 
pounds  of  butter  (one  sixth  more).  Knowing  the  cost 
of  the  cow  and  having  ascertained  the  cost  of  feeding, 
he  can  compute  the  cost  of  butter. 

HORSES 

There  are  two  classes  of  horses  of  interest  to  the 
farmer,  draft  horses  and  carriage  horses.  The  latter 
class  includes  the  American  trotting  horse  and  the 
English  coach  horse. 

These  two  great  classes  of  horses  have  strongly 
marked  characteristics  which  make  them  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other.  The  best  draft  horses  have 
good  feet  and  legs,  a  well-developed  body,  deep,  wide, 
and  short,  and  weigh  from  1800  pounds  upwards. 
The  hoofs  are  large,  round,  and  wide  at  the  heel.  The 
legs  are  rather  short,  and  are  well  set  under  the  body. 
The  Percheron  from  France,  Belgian  from  Belgium, 
Clydesdale  from  Scotland,  and  Shire  from  England  are 
four  of  the  best  known  breeds,  the  first  being  the  most 
popular  in  this  country.  Comparatively  few  farmers 
in  the  United  States  purchase  or  breed  pure  draft 
horses.  Their  preference  is  for  a  horse  of  mixed  type, 
not  so  heavy  as  the  draft  horse  nor  so  light  as  the  trotter. 


344 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  183.  —  Percheron. 


The    Percheron. --This    breed    derives    its     name 

from  a  province  in 
France,  La  Perche, 
where  itoriginated. 
The  name  Norman 
has  often  been  ap- 
plied to  the  breed 
also.  Their  intelli- 
gence, activity,  fine 
bone,  and  sound 
feet  contribute  to 
their  popularity. 
The  legs  are  clean 
of  long  hair  and 
the  color  is  dappled 
or  mottled  gray 
or  black,  although 

some  browns  and  bays  are  also  found  among  them. 
The  Clydesdale. --This  breed  of  draft  horse  is  the 

next  most  popular 

in  America.   Itorig- 
inated   in  Scotland 

where  it  is  the  rec- 
ognized draft  breed. 

The    long    hair   on 

the   lower    part    of 

the  leg,  called   the 

feather,    is    one    of 

the     distinguishing 

marks  of  the  breed. 

The   Clydesdales 

have    long    bodies  FIG.  184.  — Clydesdale. 

and  are  noted  for  their  rapid  walk.     The  color  of  the 


FARM   ANIMALS 


345 


breed  varies,  though  it  is  usually  bay  or  brown,  with 
some  white  marks  on  the  face,  and  all  or  a  part  of  the 
legs  white  up  to  the  knees  or  hocks. 

The  Shire  is  a  large  horse  of  the  draft  type.  It  has 
a  large,  round  body,  short  legs,  and  a  large,  flat  foot. 
It  is  the  popular  draft  horse  of  England.  In  action  it 
is  somewhat  slow,  in  disposition,  mild.  The  shire 
has  a  feather  of  long  hair  extending  from  the  hock 
and  the  knee  to  the  hoof.  Its  color  is  usually  bay 
or  brown  with  white  lower  legs  and  a  white  marking  on 
the  face  and  forehead. 

The  Belgian. --These  draft  horses  are  bred  in  Bel- 


FIG.  185.  —  Belgian. 


gium,  where  the  government  gives   direction   and   en- 
couragement in  their  breeding. 


346  FARM  ANIMALS 

This  breed  is  characterized  by  its  blocky  build,  with 
the  broadest  back  and  the  deepest  barrel  of  any  horse. 
Its  legs  are  short  and  have  no  long  hair,  its  feet  are 
quite  small  for  its  s  ze,  and  its  movements  are  not  very 
active.  The  popular  color  is  chestnut,  but  bays, 
browns,  and  roans  are  frequent.  The  breed  is  gaining 
in  favor  in  the  United  States. 

The  Suffolk.  --This  is  a  breed  originating  in  Suffolk 
County,  England,  and  furnishes  the  heavy  horses  for 
farm  work  in  that  country.  It  has  been  called  the 
Suffolk  Paunch  because  of  its  paunchy  body,  but  the 
breed  is  not  so  large  as  the  other  breeds  described.  The 
Suffolk  has  small  ears,  short  legs  with  no  superfluous 
hair,  and  a  deep  body.  Its  color  is  always  chestnut. 

Carriage  Horses.  -  -  The  carriage,  or  coach,  horse 
is  an  English  type  from  which  the  American  trotter 
has  been  developed.  The  ideal  carriage  horse  must 
be  of  good  size,  15.3  to  16.2  hands  high,  weighing  1200 
pounds  and  upwards.  He  must  have  a  well-shaped 
head  on  a  long,  well-arched  neck.  His  action  must  be 
free  from  paddling  or  rolling,  yet  show  speed.  The 
(i)  English  Hackney,  the  (2)  German  Coach,  and  the 
(3)  Cleveland  Bay  are  breeds  more  or  less  popular,  but 
horse,  breeders  in  this  country  are  fast  developing  a 
distinctively  American  type  of  carriage  horse  which 
possesses  points  superior  to  any  of  these  well-known 
breeds. 

The  trotter,  an  American  breed,  has  a  small  head, 
long,  sloping  shoulders,  rather  long  legs,  hind  ones 
strong,  smooth  hoofs,  and  large  nostrils.  This  horse 
is  bred  largely  for  speed.  (4)  The  Hambletonians, 
Clays,  and  Morgans  are  the  most  popular  of  the  trotting 
families. 


FARM  ANIMALS 


347 


FIG.  186.  —  Dan  Patch. 

The  saddle  horse,  a  breed  for  which  Kentucky,  Vir- 
ginia, and  Missouri  are  noted,  is  the  progeny  of  the 
English  thoroughbred,  the  latter  bred  from  the  famous 
Arabian  horses  and  native  stock.  The  American  saddle 
horse  is  used  either  as  a  saddle  or  as  a  harness  horse. 
There  are  two  classes,  the  plain-gaited  or  walk,  trot, 
and  canter  horse,  and  the  American-gaited  horse,  which 
shows  at  least  five  distinct  gaits. 

Notes-  —  The  English  Hackney  horse  is  a  "high  stepper,"  used 
as  a  fancy  carriage  horse.  It  has  a  blocky  form,  full  breast,  short  legs 
and  back.  It  has  a  neat  neck  and  an  intelligent  head.  The  color  is 
bay,  brown,  black,  or  chestnut,  the  latter  being  the  most  popular  color 
at  present.  Its  gait  is  very  attractive  —  the  "feet  are  clear  of  the 


348 


FARM  ANIMALS 


ground  and  are  strongly  and  actively  raised  to  the  knee,  while  the  hock 

is  carried  forward  under  the  body  with 
much  grace,  strength,  and  action." 

The  German  Coach.  This  breed 
from  Germany  is  not  very  well  estab- 
lished as  to  type.  There  are  four 
types,  in  fact,  depending  largely  on 
the  special  use  of  the  horse.  In  Ger- 
many many  horses  of  this  breed  are 
used  as  saddle  horses.  It  also  makes 
a  good  general  purpose  horse  for  farm 
work.  Its  color  is  bay,  brown,  or 
black.  It  has  a  longer  neck  and  longer 
legs  than  the  hackney.  There  are 
comparatively  few  representatives  of 
the  breed  in  America. 
jjif'*'  The  French  Coach  is  similar  to  the 

German   coach  horse.      It  has  a  long 

FIG.  1 87. -English  Hackney.  stride  with  good  knee  action.  The 
French  race  tracks  are  2!  miles  in  length,  and  the  horses  are  speeded 
on  sod  so  as  to  develop  the  action  most  desired  in  a  carriage  horse. 
The  colors  vary,  but  are  usually  sorrel,  black,  bay,  or  brown. 

The  Cleveland  Bay  is  bred  in  the  county  of  York  in  England.  It  has 
not  been  considered  much  of  a  success  in  America.  The  breed  is  the 
largest  of  the  coach  horses.  Although  it  is  a  good  roadster,  it  does  not 
have  the  fine  action  that  other  coach  breeds  possess.  This  breed  is 
always  bay  in  color  with  black  legs.  It  may  have  a  white  star  in  the 
forehead. 

The  families  are  named  from  the  stallions  from  which  they  origi- 
nated. 


NAME  OF  STALLION 

HOME  OF  FAMILY 

NAME  OF  FAMILY 

Hambletonian  10 

New  York 

Hambletonian 

Henry  Clay 
Justice  Morgan 
Pilot 
Tom  Hal 

Near  Philadelphia 
Vermont 
Kentucky 
Kentucky 

Clay 
Morgan 
Pilot 
Hal 

FARM  ANIMALS 


349 


The  pacers  and  the  trotters  have  the  same  origin.  In  fact,  some 
trotters  can  pace  well  and  some  pacers  have  records  as  trotters.  The 
fastest  pacer  in  the  world  is  Dan  Patch,  owned  by  Mr.  M.  W.  Sav- 
age, Minneapolis.  Dan  Patch  paced  one  mile  in  i  minute  and  55 
seconds. 

The    thoroughbred  is    the   name    of  a  family  of  horses  bred    in 
England  for  racing  under  the  saddle.      The  word  is  often  improperly 
used  instead  of  pure  bred,  which  has   reference  to  animals  having  a 
fixed  type  and  certain  char- 
acteristics which  are  registered 
by  an    association    organized 
for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
and  improving  the  breed. 

Shetland  ponies  are  a  very 
small  breed  of  horses  origi- 
nating in  the  Shetland  Islands 
off  the  coast  of  Scotland. 
They  are  bred  for  their  di- 
minutive size.  They  are  from 
36  to  46  inches  in  height, 
are  strong,  of  blocky  build, 
and  can  be  kept  very  eco- 
nomically. Their  kind  dis- 
position makes  them  especi- 
ally serviceable  for  children. 

The  broncho  is  a  pony 
bred  on  the  western  plains 
in  the  United  States.  It  is 

of  uncertain  origin,  and  since  the  introduction  of  large  pure-bred 
stallions  in  the  herds  is  much  larger  than  formerly  and  varies  greatly  in 
character. 

The  Mule. — Mules  are  a  cross  between  the  jack- 
ass and  the  horse.  The  result  of  this  cross  is  a 
hybrid  that  does  not  produce  offspring.  The  mule  is 
a  patient,  gentle  animal  of  great  strength  and  endur- 
ance. It  will  endure  hard  usage  and  a  warm  climate 


FIG.  188.  —  Shetland  PC 


350 


FARM  ANIMALS 


better  than  a  horse.     It  is  used  in  the  southern  states 
more    than    in    the   northern.     It   is    free   from    most 

animal  diseases 
and  remains  ser- 
viceable even 
when  quite  old. 
The  prevailing 
opinion  that 
mules  are  treach- 
erous and  ad- 
dicted to  kicking 
is  not  borne  out 
by  the  facts. 
St.  Louis  is  the 
greatest  market 
for  mules  in  the 
world. 

Care  of  Horses.  —  It  has  been  experimentally 
demonstrated  that  ruminating  (cud-chewing)  animals, 
like  the  cow  and  sheep,  can  digest  a  much  larger  per- 
centage of  fats  and  crude  fiber  than  horses,  and  it  has 
long  been  recognized  that,  in  general,  horses  digest 
their  food  less  thoroughly  than  cattle.  This  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  horses  to  be  kept  in  good  condi- 
tion must  be  fed  with  care.  (See  Chapter  VIII.)  The 
object  is  not  to  fatten  the  horse,  for  that  will  unfit  him 
for  labor  and  thus  render  him  useless.  Provided  a 
horse  is  in  good  condition,  it  is  seldom  desirable  to 
increase  his  weight.  The  best  test  of  suitable  feeding 
rations  for  a  horse  is  that  the  animal  maintains  an 
even  weight. 

It  is  necessary  for  the  health  of  a  horse  that  he  be 
kept  clean  and  that  he  be  fed  clean  fodder.  Clover 


FARM  ANIMALS  351 

hay   is    too    dusty    for    horses,    timothy    being    much 
better. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  no  part  of  the  harness 
chafes  the  skin,  or  there  may  result  sores  that  will  be 
hard  to  heal.  Very  cold  bits  often  tear  the  skin  of  the 
mouth  and  cause  serious  difficulty.  Tight  checking  is 
cruel  and  unnecessary. 

Training  a  Horse.  —  As  a  colt  easily  forms  habits 
but  never,  or  almost  never,  breaks  one  once  formed,  it 
is  important  to  begin  the  training  of  a  horse  early  and 
to  devote  care  to  it,  if  one  wishes  to  rear  a  horse  that  is 
tractable  and  reliable.  The  training  should  begin  with 
the  trainer  himself.  If  he  cannot  control  himself,  he 
can  never  train  a  horse  successfully.  Firmness,  gentle- 
ness, steadiness,  even  temper,  and  self-control  are  nec- 
essary characteristics  of  a  good  horse  trainer.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  teach  one  command  at  a  time,  and 
that  one  always  meaning  the  same  thing,  and  never  to 
give  contradictory  commands.  "  Whoa  back  "  is  a  di- 
rection that  no  horse  could  obey.  A  horse  should  be 
trained  to  stand  still  during  harnessing  and  loading; 
in  short,  to  await  the  word  of  command  to  start,  and 
to  stand  still  after  being  stopped. 

A  horse  that  is  trained  in  the  few  necessary  words  of 
command  will  show  little  need  for  the  whip  or  the 
jerked  lines. 

SHEEP 

Sheep  may  be  raised  on  the  farm  for  two  purposes, 
mutton  and  wool.  In  America,  until  recent  years, 
wool  has  been  the  prime  consideration  in  raising  sheep, 
and  when  the  price  of  wool  has  been  high,  compara- 
tively large  profits  have  been  made.  But  the  growing 
demand  for  mutton  has  turned  the  attention  of  farm- 


352  FARM  ANIMALS 

ers  to  the  raising  of  sheep  for  this  purpose,  the  fleece 
value  being  incidental,  and  this  industry  is  fast  assum- 
ing large  proportions.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  our 
rich  lands  and  abundant  feeds  are  well  suited  to  the 
growth  of  mutton  sheep,  and  that  they,  if  properly 
selected,  can  grow  a  large  part  of  the  wool  needed  for 
manufacturing  in  this  country;  that  is,  that  certain 
breeds  are  capable  of  development  into  dual  purpose 
sheep. 

Sheep  can  thrive  on  scanty  pastures,  and  are  espe- 
cially valuable  in  cleaning  out  the  weeds  on  a  farm,  but 
they  are  capable  of  making  as  large  returns  for  good  feed- 
ing as  any  other  farm  animal,  except  the  hog.  The  pro- 
duction cost  of  a  pound  of  mutton  is  no  more  than  that 
of  a  pound  of  beef,  and  the  wool  gives  additional  value 
in  later  years.  Farmers  in  the  grain-producing  states 
have  been  engaging  in  this  industry  with  profitable 
returns. 

Regularity  and  uniformity  in  feeding  are  of  the  first 
importance  in  raising  good  sheep,  some  authorities  ad- 
vocating two  feedings  daily,  others  three.  Kind  treat- 
ment, clean  troughs,  healthy  quarters,  pure  water,  and 
the  use  of  salt  and  sulphur  are  requisites  in  keeping 
sheep  in  good  condition.  The  best  coarse  fodders  for 
winter  feeding  for  sheep  are  clover  hay,  pea  straw,  and 
corn.  During  the  summer,  in  regions  where  droughts 
are  common,  green  fodder,  such  as  rape  or  rye,  should 
supplement  the  dry  pasturage.  Oats  and  bran  are 
satisfactory  grain  foods  for  sheep. 

Breeds  of  Sheep.  —  Sheep  are  divided  into  three 
classes  according  to  the  grade  of  wool  they  produce : 
(l)  fine-wool  producers,  the  Merinos;  (2)  medium- 
grade  wool  producers,  the  Southdown,  the  Shropshire, 


FARM  ANIMALS 


353 


FIG.  190.  —  Merino. 


the  Oxford,  the  Dorset,  and  the  Cheviot ;  (3)  long- 
wool  producers,  the  Cotswold,  the  Leicester,  and  the 
Lincoln. 

The  Merinos,  native  of  Spain,  are  noted  for  their  fine 
wool.  In  Spain  they  are  very  small,  but  sheep-breeders 
in  this  country  have 
produced  a  larger 
type,  numerous  in 
the  southwestern 
part  of  the  United 
States.  This  type 
can  be  developed 
to  furnish  good 
mutton  as  well  as 
good  wool.  The 
Delaine  and  Ram- 
bouillet  (French 
Merinos)  are  descended  from  the  Merino,  the  second 
producing  good  mutton.  The  medium-grade  and  long- 
wool  producers  are  natives  of  England,  most  of  them 
taking  the  name  of  the  county  where  they  predominate. 
The  Southdown  and  Shropshire  are  famous  for  their 
mutton  rather  than  for  their  wool.  They  are  quite  nu- 
merous in  the  east  and  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The 
long-wooled  sheep  are  not  common  in  this  country,  the 
Cotswold  being  the  only  one  much  known. 

Notes.  — The  Merinos  are  distinguished  by  the  large  wrinkles  on 
their  necks  and  bodies.  The  rams  have  horns,  but  the  ewes  are  horn- 
less. The  mutton  is  not  of  very  good  quality  and  the  lambs  are  late 
in  development.  The  breed  has  been  greatly  improved  in  the  United 
States  and  is  here  called  the  American  Merino.  Its  chief  value  is  in 
its  fine  wool.  It  produces  as  high  as  2  5  per  cent  of  its  weight  in  wool, 
not  being  excelled  by  any  other  breed  in  this  particular. 
M.  &  H.  AG.  —  2.3 


354 


FARM  ANIMALS 


The  Delaines  are    derived  from  the  Merino  by  selection  with  a 
purpose  to  improve  the  mutton  quality  and  to  produce  a  Merino  with 

fewer  wrinkles,  or  folds,  in 
the  skin.  They  have  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  an  an- 
imal fairly  good  for  mutton 
and  having  a  fleece  that  is 
second  only  to  the  Merino. 
The  lambs  are  stronger  and 
develop  earlier  than  the  Me- 
rino. 

The  Rambouillet  has  its 

native     home     in     France. 

FIG.  IQI.  —  Delaine.  rri  L  1      •         r 

1  here,    by    selection    from 

flocks  originating  from  the  Spanish  Me- 
rino, a  sheep  of  larger  size  has  been  pro- 
duced. It  does  not  differ  materially  in 
appearance  from  the  Delaine.  It  has 
large  folds  on  the  neck  and  breast,  but 
few  or  none  on  the  body.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  Merino  family.  It  is  cov- 
ered with  fleece  all  over  the  body,  as 
are  the  other  Merinos,  but  it  is  whiter 

than  the  others,  owing  to  the  fact  that 

.  i  i  •  -i  FIG.  192.  —  Rambouillet. 

the  wool  is  not  so  oily. 

The  Southdown  origi- 
nated in  the  southern 
counties  of  England,  a 
low  range  of  chalky  cliffs, 
called  the  South  Downs, 
giving  the  breed  its  name. 
This  is  a  small  sheep  of 
distinct  mutton  quality. 
It  has  a  short  fleece.  It 
is  a  superior  feeder,  ma- 
turing rapidl  v,  and  its 
IMG.  i  CM.  —  Southdown.  mutton  holds  first  place 


FARM  ANIMALS 


355 


in  the  best  markets.  Its 
face  and  legs  are  a  reddish 
or  grayish  brown.  Its  dis- 
position is  quiet  and  docile. 
The  Shropshire  origi- 
nated in  the  counties  of 
Shropshire  and  Stafford  in 
England.  It  has  some 
Southdown  blood  with 
some  of  the  longer-wooled 
breeds.  This  is  probably 
the  most  popular  breed  in 


FIG.  195.  —  Hampshire 

in  the  county  of  Hamp- 
shire, England,  resembles 
the  Shropshire,  but  is  larger 
and  coarser.  It  does  not 
produce  so  much  wool  and 
the  quality  is  not  so  good. 
The  face  is  not  covered  with 
so  much  wool  as  the  Shrop- 
shire, and  the  color  of  the 
legs,  face,  and  ears  is  a 
dark  brown. 

The  Oxford 'is  the  larg- 
est of  the  middle-wooled 


FIG.  194.  —  Shropshire. 

America.  It  is  of  excel- 
lent mutton  quality,  of  good 
size,  and  produces  a  fleece 
of  medium  length  and 
weight.  The  Shropshire 
has  a  black  face,  ears  and 
legs,  and  it  is  some- 
times called  the  "  black 
face."  The  lambs  mature 
early  and  the  ewes  often 
give  birth  to  twins. 

The    Hampshire,   bred 


FIG.  196.  —  Oxford. 


356 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  197.  —  Horned  Dorset. 


breed.  It  produces  a  heavy  fleece  of  coarse  wool  and  its  mutton  is  of 
good  quality.  In  appearance  it  resembles  the  Shropshire.  It  is  horn- 
less, has  dark  brown  face  and  legs,  and  is  wooled  over  the  forehead. 

On  account  of  its  docile 
disposition,  good  mutton- 
producing  quality,  heavy 
fleece,  and  large  size, 
the  Oxford  is  growing  in 
popularity  with  the  Amer- 
ican farmer. 

The  Horned  Dorset 
is  another  English  breed. 
It  is  especially  valuable  for 
producing  early  spring 
lambs.  Both  males  and 
females  have  horns.  The 
horns  of  the  males  curve  backward  and  spirally  ;  those  of  the  female 
curve  outward,  down,  and  forward.  The  face,  legs,  and  hoofs  are 
white. 

The  Cheviot,  bred  in  the  Cheviot  Hills  between  England  and  Scot- 
land, is  a  sheep  about 
the  size  of  the  Shrop- 
shire. The  head  is 
hornless  and  is  cov- 
ered with  short  white 
hair.  The  fleece 
comes  up  the  neck 
to  behind  the  ears, 
forming  a  kind  of 
collar.  The  lower 
legs  are  white  and 

the  hoofs    are  black. 

.    .         .  FIG.  198. 

The    breed    is   valu- 
able as  a  grazer,  obtaining  a  good  living    from   pastures    that   would 
not  support  other   sheep. 

The  Cotswold  is  one  of  the  long-wooled  sheep.      It  is  bred  in  the 
county  of  Gloucester,  England.      It  has  a  long,  curly  fleece,  parting 


Cheviot. 


FARM  ANIMALS 


357 


along  the  back  and  hanging  down  the  sides  to  a  considerable  length. 
The  head  is  hornless  and  usually  white.  It  has  curls  of  fleece  extend- 
ing from  the  forehead  down  over  the  nose.  This  is  one  of  the  largest 


FIG.  199.  —  Cotswold. 

sheep  in  existence.     It  stands  confinement  well,  but  does  not  thrive 
well  on  scant  pastures. 

The  Lincoln  has  its  native  home  in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  Eng- 
land. It  is  probably  the  largest  sheep,  weighing  from  3  oo  to  400  pounds. 
It  has  long,  spiral,  curly  locks  of  coarse  wool.  This  parts  along  the 


FIG.  200.  —  Lincoln. 


back  and  hangs  down  the  sides.  This  breed  furnishes  the  longest 
fleece  of  any,  some  samples  being  2 1  inches  in  length.  The  head  and 
legs  are  white.  The  forehead  has  tufts  of  wool,  making  a  foretop  not 
so  long  as  the  Cotswold. 


358  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  Leicester  (pronounced  /ester)  was  originated  in  the  county 
of  the  same  name  in  England.  The  wool  lies  in  close  spirals  over  the 
body,  but  is  not  so  long  as  that  of  the  other  long-wooled  breeds.  The 


FIG.  201.  —  Leicester. 

head  and  lower  legs  are  white  and  have  no  wool.  The  wool  is  not 
heavy  and  it  does  not  produce  good  mutton.  There  are  very  few  of 
these  sheep  in  America. 

SWINE 

The  hog,  in  spite  of  its  unattractive  exterior,  is 
an  important  economic  factor  in  the  United  States,  for 
we  are  known  as  a  nation  of  pork  eaters  and  pork  pro- 
ducers. The  dairy  belt  and  corn  belt  are  always 
thought  of  as  the  hog  belt  also,  for  corn  and  skimmed 
milk  are  considered  the  great  pork  producers.  That 
these  are  not  the  only  foods  suitable  for  this  purpose 
and  that  the  hog  belt  may  easily  extend  far  beyond  the 
corn  belt  and  the  dairy  belt  has  been  clearly  shown, 
for  any  locality  that  will  grow  clover,  peas,  beans, 
barley,  wheat,  oats,  or  rye  can  raise  hogs  profitably. 
The  famous  Danish  bacon,  so  popular  in  English  mar- 
kets, comes  from  pigs  fed  on  barley  and  dairy  by-prod- 


FARM   ANIMALS  359 

ucts.  In  localities  where  corn  raising  is  not  possible, 
barley  may  well  be  substituted  for  feeding  pigs,  with  a 
gain  in  the  quality  of  the  bacon  produced. 

Hogs  do 'not  thrive  unless  well  protected  from  weather 
extremes.  A  clean  inclosure  with  sleeping  pens  under 
cover  and  feeding  pens  adjoining  is  essential.  Light, 
ventilation,  warmth,  and  cleanliness  are  as  necessary 
to  successful  raising  of  pigs  as  any  other  farm  animal. 
Low,  wide,  shallow  iron  troughs  are  advised  for  feeding 
purposes,  iron  being  regarded  as  more  sanitary  than 
wood. 

Types  of  Hogs. --There  are  two  different  types  of 
hogs,  the  lard  type  and  the  bacon  type.  The  lard  type 
of  hogs  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  United 
States,  where  corn  is  the  principal  food  for  fattening. 
They  are  large,  fat  hogs,  averaging  as  marketed  about 
220  pounds.  The  fat  is  accumulated  in  large  masses 
under  the  skin  and  about  the  kidneys.  The  fat  about 
the  kidneys  makes  what  is  called  leaf  lard. 

The  lard  hog  has  a  compact,  thick  body,  short  head, 
broad  back,  strong  hams,  deep  body,  and  short  legs. 
The  disposition  of  the  fat  type  of  hogs  is  usually  quiet, 
and  as  the  animal  becomes  very  fat  it  becomes  sluggish, 
spending  much  of  its  time  in  sleep.  The  Poland  China, 
the  Berkshire,  the  Chester  White,  and  the  Duroc  Jersey 
are  the  principal  breeds  of  the  fat  hogs. 

The  bacon  type  is  used  in  producing  the  pieces  of  side 
meat  with  lean  and  fat  in  streaks.  This  makes  the 
high-priced  bacon  that  is  relished  by  so  many.  The 
bacon  type  of  hogs  is  grown  in  Canada  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  where  other  foods  than  corn  are  used 
for  fattening  and  finishing  for  market.  The  bacon  hog 
is  a  long-bodied  animal,  much  narrower  than  the  lard 


360  FARM  ANIMALS 

hog.  Its  side  is  long  and  wide,  making  the  largest 
amount  possible  of  side  meat.  The  hams  are  smaller 
and  the  head  and  neck  are  longer  than  in  the  lard  type 
of  hogs. 

The  principal  bacon  breeds  are  the  Large  Yorkshire, 
the  Tamworth,  and  the  Thin  Rind,  or  Hampshire. 

Hog  Cholera.  —  Hog  cholera  has  been  one  of  the 
greatest  hindrances  in  raising  hogs.  It  is  a  contagious 
disease  of  a  virulent  type.  The  germs  of  this  disease 
are  carried  from  one  herd  to  another  on  the  shoes  of 
visitors,  on  the  feet  of  dogs  or  other  animals,  and  by 
streams  of  water.  Improper  feeding  makes  hogs  es- 
pecially susceptible  to  this  disease.  It  is  quite  certain 
that  the  disease  can  be  controlled  and  probably  wiped 
out  by  the  use  of  a  recently  discovered  treatment  of 
vaccination.  The  various  Experiment  Stations  in  the 
United  States  are  furnishing  the  vaccine  and  giving 
full  directions  as  to  its  use. 

Notes.  —  Lard  Type  Hogs.  The  Poland  China  is  probably  the 
most  typical  hog  of  the  lard  type.  It  is  the  most  numerous  in  the 

corn-growing  states.  It 
originated  in  southwest- 
ern Ohio.  There  is 
no  good  reason  for  the 
name  of  the  breed.  For 
several  years  breeders 
of  this  hog  have  been 
selecting  for  early  ma- 
turity and  quick-fatten- 
ing qualities.  In  these 
particulars  the  breed 

excels.  It  is  also  very  good  in  the  hams.  It  has  short  legs,  a  very 
broad  and  curved  back,  a  straight  nose,  and  the  top  third  of  the  ear 
breaks  over  into  a  droop.  The  color  of  the  Poland  China  is  usually 


FARM  ANIMALS 


361 


FIG.  203.  —  Berkshire. 


black  with  white  in  the  face,  on  the  tail,  and  on  the  feet.     It  may  have 
spots  of  white  on  the  body. 

The  Berkshire  derives  its  name  from  the  locality  in  which  it  origi- 
nated, namely,  Berkshire,  England.  It  is  a  very  popular  breed  in  the 
United  States.  Its 
breeders  claim  for  it 
large  size,  early  ma- 
turing quality,  and  the 
production  of  large 
litters.  The  lean  of 
its  flesh  is  well  mixed 
with  the  fat  and  if 
fed  properly  may  pro- 
duce bacon  of  good 
quality.  The  Berk- 
shire is  easily  distinguished  from  the  Poland  China  by  having  an  erect 
instead  of  a  drooping  ear  and  by  having  an  upturned  snout.  Its  color 
is  black  with  "six  white  points,"  four  white  feet,  white  in  the  face, 
and  white  on  the  tail. 

The  Chester  Whites  originated  in  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania. 
They  are  an  older  breed  than  the  Poland  China  and  considerably  larger 

and  coarser.  This 
hog  is  not  quite  so 
early  maturing,  but  is 
a  profitable  breed,  as  it 
makes  large  gains  from 
the  food  consumed. 
An  improved  variety 
of  this  breed,  originated 
in  Ohio,  is  called  the 
Ohio  Improved  Chester 
Whites  (O.  I.  C.). 
This  variety  is  not  so  coarse  or  so  large  as  the  regular  breed.  The 
Chester  Whites  are  white  in  color,  but  may  have  dark  spots  on  the 
skin  under  the  hair.  They  have  broad  backs,  deep  bodies,  and  large, 
drooping  ears. 

The   Duroc   Jersey  is  one  of  the   most  recent  of  the   American 


FIG.  204.  —  Chester  White. 


362 


FARM  ANIMALS 


breeds  of  swine.      It  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor  on  account  of  the 

large  litters  which  it 
produces.  Its  qualities 
are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  Poland 
China.  The  color  is 
always  red,  but  may 
vary  in  shades.  The 
ears  droop  forward. 

Other    breeds    that 
FIG.  205.  —  Duroc  Jersey.  are  recem  Of  not  SQ  wel] 


established  in  America  are  the  Cheshire,  the  Victoria,   the  Essex,  the 

small  Yorkshire,  and  the 

Suffolk. 

The    Bacon    Type 

Hogs  •   The  Large  York- 

shire originated  in  York, 

England.      This    is    the 

most  popul  ar  bacon  breed. 

It  is  especially  prized  in 

Canada.      Their    bodies 

are  very   long  and  very 

deep.      They  never  be- 

come very  fat,  yet  they 

weigh  as    much    as   the  FlG-  2°6-  —  Vorkshire. 

heaviest  fat  hogs.      They  do  not  mature  very  early,  but  they  furnish  an 

excellent  quality  of  pork.      In  England  a  higher  price  is  paid  for  pork 

from  the  bacon  hogs, 
but  no  distinction  in 
favor  of  hogs  of  this 
type,  as  yet,  is  made  in 
the  United  States.  The 
Yorkshire  is  'white  all 
over  and  has  a  pink  skin. 

__  The  Tamworth  also 

j^^g^r—  -       —  •  »--  ~^^^pbP^"" 

***  originated  in  England. 

FIG.  207.  —  Tamworth.  This    breed    is    noted 


FARM  ANIMALS  363 

for  its  depth   of  body,  producing  a  large   quantity  of  bacon.      It  is 
difficult  to  fatten,  but  produces  very  large  litters  of  pigs.      The  legs  are 
long,  the  color  is  red, 
and  the  head  and  snout 
are  long. 

The  Thin  Rind  or 
Hampshire  probably 
originated  in  England. 
It  is  about  the  medium 
size  and  is  especially 
adapted  to  foraging  for 
food  in  field  and  forest.  FlG  2og  _  Thin  Rm(J 

It  is  not  very  widely 

distributed  in  America.      The   color  is  usually  black  with  a  white  belt 
about  the  body  just  back  of  the  forelegs,  which  are  also  usually  white, 

POULTRY 

Domestic  fowls  have  a  wide  distribution  throughout 
the  United  States,  but  poultry  raising  as  an  industry 
is  not  so  widespread.  Most  farmers  raise  chickens, 
ducks,  turkeys,  and  geese  merely  as  a  means  of  supply- 
ing their  own  tables  with  an  economical  and  palatable 
food.  Incidentally,  they  market  a  few  in  neighboring 
towns,  when  they  have  an  oversupply  or  the  price  is 
high.  Yet  the  aggregate  poultry  product  in  the  United 
States  has  a  value  exceeded  only  by  corn,  dairy  prod- 
ucts, beef  cattle,  cotton,  swine,  and  wheat. 

"  The  farmer's  hen  is  becoming  a  worthy  companion 
to  his  cow.  The  annual  production  of  eggs  is  now  a 
score  of  billions,  and,  after  supplying  the  needs  of  fac- 
tories, tanneries,  bakeries,  and  other  trades,  they  are 
becoming  a  substitute  for  high-priced  meats,  besides 
entering  more  generally  into  the  everyday  food  of  the 
people.  Poultry  products  have  now  climbed  to  a  place 


364  FARM  ANIMALS 

of  more  than  half  a  billion  dollars  in  value ;  and  so  the 
farmer's  hen  competes  with  wheat  for  precedence."  1 

Most  farmers  raise  some  ducks,  geese,  or  turkeys, 
and  often  all  three  with  their  chickens.  Ducks  are 
good  foragers,  eating  the  refuse  of  food  rejected  by  other 
fowls.  Turkeys  are  raised  for  their  meat  rather  than 
for  eggs,  their  flesh  bringing  a  higher  price  in  the  market 
than  that  of  any  other  fowl.  They  are  distinctively  an 
American  fowl,  being  derived  from  our  wild  turkey. 

Like  most  other  farm  stock,  poultry  serve  a  double 
purpose,  being  either  meat  producers  or  egg  producers, 
some  breeds  being  best  for  the  one  purpose  and  some 
for  the  other,  while  still  other  breeds  answer  very  well 
as  dual  purpose  hens 

Incubators,  or  artificial  hatchers,  have  replaced  the 
hen  where  it  is  desired  to  rear  fowls  in  large  numbers 
for  the  production  of  eggs,  or  when  early  hatching  is 
desired.  The  Mediterranean  fowls  cannot  be  depended 
upon  for  natural  incubation  where  large  numbers  are 
to  be  raised.  Expert  poultry  men,  by  great  care,  close 
observation,  and  good  judgment  have,  for  a  term  of 
years  hatched  in  incubators  over  four  fifths  of  all  eggs 
put  into  the  machine. 

Housing  of  Poultry.  —  Poultry  should  be  so  cared  for 
the  year  round  that  the  nearest  possible  approach  to 
ideal  conditions  may  prevail.  The  house  should  be  built 
on  dry,  well-drained  ground,  having  an  east  and  west 
extension  and  openings  toward  the  south  so  that  it  may 
have  the  full  benefit  of  sunshine  all  the  year.  The 
perches,  made  of  2  by  3  inch  scantling,  should  have  a 
slightly  rounded  surface  on  the  upper  side  and  be  free 
from  cracks  or  blemishes,  so  that  vermin  may  not  find 

Yearbook,  1905. 


FARM  ANIMALS  365 

convenient  hiding  places.  It  is  essential  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  poultry  house  that  all  the  furnishings  should 
be  movable,  so  that  they  may  be  taken  out  and  cleaned 
frequently.  A  platform  made  to  catch  the  droppings 
may  be  conveniently  placed  under  the  perches  and  the 
nests  made  under  this.  The  floor  of  the  house  should 
be  dry  and  tight,  but  ventilated  underneath.  Wood 
is  better  for  floors  than  cement  or  earth,  being  drier 
and  warmer.  The  amount  of  space  required  by  each 
fowl  depends  upon  whether  there  is  a  shed  attached  to 
the  house  or  whether  the  fowls  have  free  access  to  the 
open  fields.  If  either  of  the  latter  conditions  prevails, 
about  5  square  feet  of  surface  for  each  fowl  is  sufficient, 
but  in  the  former  case,  double  the  space  should  be  pro- 
vided. Good  ventilation  is  necessary,  but  draughts  are 
injurious  to  hens. 

Diseases.  —  Poultry  are  subject  to  many  diseases, 
such  as  gapes,  caused  by  worms  in  the  windpipe ;  cholera, 
a  germ  disease,  therefore  contagious ;  roup,  sometimes 
called  the  winter  disease.  Lice  afflict  poultry,  frequently 
breeding  on  their  bodies,  and  mites,  which  suck  their 
blood,  often  infest  the  walls,  roosts,  and  nests.  Clean- 
liness is  one  of  the  surest  preventives  of  both  disease 
and  vermin. 

Breeds  of  Fowls.  —  Fowls  are  variously  classified,— 
according  to  their  tendency  to  produce  flesh  or  eggs, 
according  to  their  tendency  to  become  broody,  and  ac- 
cording to  their  origin  geographically. 

The  most  useful  classification  is  the  first  one  men- 
tioned, the  tendency  to  produce  a  meat  or  an  egg  prod- 
uct. This  gives  four  classes  of  fowls  :  the  egg  breeds, 
those  that  are  kept  primarily  for  egg  production;  the 
meat  breeds,  those  that  are  kept  principally  for  their 


366  FARM  ANIMALS 

production  of  flesh ;  the  general  purpose  breeds,  those 
that  are  fair  in  both  egg  and  meat  production;  the 
fancy  breeds,  which  are  kept  for  some  oddity  of  color, 
form,  or  size. 

The  Egg  Breeds  are  usually  poor  sitters,  the  hens  not 
becoming  broody  till  they  are  at  least  two  years  old. 
They  are  of  a  very  nervous  disposition.  They  have  a 
tendency  to  fly  on  slight  provocation  and  are  not 
adapted  to  close  confinement.  Many  of  these  breeds 
give  good  results  when  confined  in  small  yards  or  runs, 
but  this  life  is  contrary  to  the  nature  of  the  egg  breeds, 
which  are  adapted  to  a  large  range  and  to  seeking  their 
own  food.  Their  bodies  are  small  and  trim,  having 
the  feathers  laid  close  to  the  body.  Most  of  the  breeds 
of  this  class  originated  in  countries  or  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  they  are  therefore  called  the 
Mediterranean  breeds.  They  are  better  adapted  to 
warm  than  to  very  cold  climates.  They  have  large 
combs  and  wattles;  when  these  are  frozen,  egg  pro- 
duction stops  for  a  time.  The  principal  egg  breeds  are 
the  Leghorns,  Minorcas,  Spanish,  and  Hamburgs. 

The  Meat  Breeds,  although  producing  some  eggs, 
are  kept  for  their  ability  to  grow  a  large  body  with 
a  good  supply  of  meat.  They  are  classed  as  sitters, 
becoming  broody  early  and  persisting  in  sitting.  They 
are  of  a  phlegmatic  disposition  and  are  easily  handled. 
They  bear  confinement  well  and  are  too  inactive  to 
forage  for  their  food.  On  that  account,  they  should 
be  supplied  with  their  food. 

They  grow  a  large  quantity  of  feathers  which  stand 
out  from  the  body,  giving  a  fluffy  appearance  and  mak- 
ing these  fowl  adapted  to  stand  the  rigors  of  a  cold 
climate.  They  originated  in  Asia,  and  are  therefore 


FARM   ANIMALS  367 

called  the  Asiatics.     The  principal   representatives  of 
this  class  are  the  Brahmas,  Cochins,  and  Langshans. 

The  General  Purpose  Breeds. --This  class  of  fowls 
occupies  a  middle  ground  between  the  egg  breeds  and 
the  meat  breeds.  The  bodies  are  medium  in  size. 
The  hens  become  broody  and  make  good  mothers. 
They  produce  more  eggs  than  the  meat  breeds  and  do 
not  break  so  many  of  the  eggs  in  sitting  as  the  clumsier 
and  heavier  hens.  They  are  gentle  and  easily  handled. 
They  do  well  in  confinement  and  make  good  use  of  a 
large  range  if  they  are  allowed  the  privilege.  They 
produce  a  fair  number  of  eggs  in  a  year  and  their 
bodies  furnish  a  good  quantity  of  flesh  of  good  quality. 
These  breeds  are  easily  adapted  to  varying  conditions 
and  have  been  bred  towards  egg  production,  making 
"  laying  strains  "  that  are  excellent  for  this  purpose. 
They  have  also  been  increased  in  size  till  in  weight 
they  equal  many  of  the  meat  breeds.  The  principal 
general  purpose  breeds  are  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  and  the  Orpingtons. 

Egg  Breeds  Described.  —  Leghorn  (White,  Single 
and  Rose  Comb  White,  Silver  Duckwing,  Brown, 
Dominique,  Black,  Rose 
Comb  Brown,  and  Buff). 
The  name  of  this  breed  was 
probably  derived  from  the 
city  of  Leghorn,  Italy,  from 
which  place  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  brought 
to  America.  This  is  the  209.  -  Rose  ^Comb  Brown  Leg- 

typical  egg  breed.     All  va- 
rieties are  comparatively  small  and  are  so  active  that 
it  is  difficult  to  fatten  them.     They  are  persistent  layers 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  210.  —  Rose  Comb  Black 
Minorcas. 


of  rather  large,  white  eggs.  They  begin  to  lay  at  the 
age  of  five  months  and  continue  for  five  years.  The 
young  become  feathered  and  develop  early  in  life,  as  a 
breed  showing  great  hardiness. 

Minorca  (Black,  Rose  Comb 
Black,  White,  and  Rose  Comb 
White).  This  breed,  the  heav- 
iest of  the  Mediterranean  fowls, 
originated  on  the  island  of  Mi- 
norca in  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
They  are  great  egg  producers. 
They  lay  a  very  large,  pure 
white  egg  that  is  quite  popu- 
lar in  most  markets.  The  flesh  is  good  for  meat,  but  as 
most  people  prefer  fowls  having  a  yellow  skin  and 
shanks,  instead  of  the  white  skin  and  dark  shanks  and 
feet  of  the  Minorca,  they  are  not  in  favor  for  their 
meat.  They  have  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
Leghorn  and  possess  a  strong  constitution  and  great 
vigor. 

Spanish.  These  are  now  called  the  White-faced 
Black  Spanish.  As  the 
name  indicates,  they  prob- 
ably came  from  Spain,  be- 
ing one  of  the  oldest  fowls 
of  which  we  have  any  rec- 
ord. This  breed  is  glossy 
greenish  black  with  black 

shanks    and    toes,    the    face     FIG.  211.  —  White-faced  Black  Span- 

and  ear  lobes  being  white. 

The  legs  are  somewhat  longer  than  other  breeds  de- 
scribed. They  do  not  show  the  hardiness  nor  vigor  of 
the  other  breeds. 


FARM   ANIMALS 


369 


Hamburg  (Silver  Spangled,  Golden  Spangled, 
Golden  Penciled,  White,  and  Black).  This  is  a  breed 
of  small,  active  birds.  Being  great  fliers,  they  require 
a  large  range.  They  are 
prolific  layers  of  small 
white  eggs. 

All  varieties  have  dark- 
colored  shanks  and  toes, 
and  rose  combs  which  ter- 
minate in  a  spike  or  point 

at  the    rear  FIG.  212.  —  Silver  Spangled  Hamburgs. 

The  Hamburgs  originated  in  northern  Germany  or 
Holland.  The  Red  Caps  resemble  the  Hamburgs,  but 
are  larger,  with  a  black  and  red  plumage. 

The  Andalusians.  This  breed  is  thought  to  have 
its  origin  in  the  province  of  Andalusia  in  southern 
Spain.  The  feathers  are  a  bluish  gray  or  dove  color. 
The  shanks  and  toes  are  a  slaty  blue.  They  are  ex- 
cellent layers,  and  resemble  the  Leghorn  closely  except 
in  color. 

Meat    Breeds    Described.  —  Brahmas    (Light    and 

Dark).  This  typical  meat 
breed  probably  descended 
from  the  fowls  of  India. 
The  young  mature  some- 
what slowly.  So  inactive 
are  the  Brahmas  that  a 
fence  four  feet  high  will  re- 
strain them.  They  have 

FIG.  213. -Dark  Brahmas.  heavy        bodies,         Weighing 

from  nine  to  twelve  pounds.  They  are  persistent 
sitters,  but  so  clumsy  that  they  arc  liable  to  break 
their  eggs.  The  flesh  is  of  good  quality,  but  with 


M.  &  H.  AG. 


370 


FARM  ANIMALS 


a  tendency  to  coarseness.  They  lay  a  fair  number 
of  eggs,  brown  in  color.  The  skin  of  the  legs  and  shanks 
is  yellow  and  the  outsides  of  the  shanks  and  toes  are 
feathered.  One  distinguishing  point  of  this  breed  is 
the  pea  comb.  This  comb  appears  to  be  made  by 
the  union  of  three  single  combs  with  cross  serrations, 

the  middle  comb  stand- 
ing higher  than  the  other 
two. 

Cochins  (Buff  Par- 
tridge, Black,  and 
White).  This  breed  was 
introduced  from  China. 

FIG.  214.  -  Buff  Cochins.  They  are  slightly  Hghter 

in  weight  than  the  Brahmas.  They  are  fairly  good 
layers,  good  sitters  and  fatten  very  easily.  They  have 
an  abundance  of  fluffy  feathers  and  stand  confinement 
well. 

Langshans     (Black     and    White).     This     breed     is 
from  northern  China.  They 
are  smaller  and   more    ac- 
tive than  any  of  the  other 
Asiatics. 

Their  flesh  is  of  excellent 
quality.  They  have  white 
skin  and  dark  shanks,  with 
less  abundant  leg  feather- 


FIG.  215.  —  Black  Langshans. 


ing  than  the  others.  These 
fowls  have  long  bodies  and 
carry  the  tail  high,  almost  on  a  level  with  the  comb. 

Faverolle.  This  can  hardly  be  considered  a  distinct 
breed.  It  is  a  cross  among  the  Brahmas,  Cochins, 
Dorkings,  and  Houdans.  The  breed  is  somewhat  nu- 


FARM  ANIMALS 


371 


FIG.  216. 


-  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks. 


merous  in  France,  but  has  not  gained  much  of  a  standing 
in  this  country. 

General  Purpose  Breeds  Described.  Plymouth 
Rock  (Barred,  White,  Buff,  Partridge,  and  Silver  Pen- 
ciled). This  most  useful  breed 
is  of  American  origin,  originating 
in  Massachusetts.  It  approaches 
the  meat  breeds  for  size,  having 
rather  long,  broad,  and  deep  bod- 
ies, and  the  egg  breeds  for  lay- 
ing, being  above  the  average  as 
winter  layers,  and  the  hens  make 
excellent  mothers.  The  White 
Rocks  have  a  disadvantage  in  appearance  when  dressed 
for  market.  There  are  always  some  undeveloped 
feathers  under  the  skin.  If  these  are  dark,  they  must 
be  removed,  which  produces  a  discoloration  of  the  skin. 
All  varieties  have  medium-sized,  single  combs. 

Wyandotte  (White,  Silver  Laced,  Golden,  Buff,  Black, 
Partridge,  and  Silver  Penciled).  This  breed  was  de- 
veloped later  than  the  Plym- 
outh Rocks.  By  many  it  is 
considered  equal  if  not  superior 
to  the  Plymouth  Rock  as  a 
general  purpose  fowl.  Its  body, 
somewhat  smaller  than  the 
Plymouth  Rocks,  is  short,  deep, 
and  round,  yielding  a  flesh 
that  is  tender  and  juicy,  with 
a  relatively  small  proportion  of 

bone.  Its  low  rose  comb  makes  it  a  breed  well  suited 
to  a  cold  climate.  These  fowls  are  good  layers  of  fair- 
sized  eggs,  brown  in  color. 


372 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.   218.  —  Single   Comb   Rhode 
Island  Reds. 


Rhode  Island  Red  (Rose  Comb  and  Single  Comb). 
This  breed  was  made  by  crossing  all  known  varieties 

of  fowls  and  making  selec- 
tion for  a  good  general  pur- 
pose fowl.  In  shape  it  re- 
sembles the  Plymouth  Rock 
somewhat,  having  broad, 
deep  bodies  of  long  length. 
They  carry  a  large  pro- 
portion of  meat  on  their 
well-formed  bodies.  The 
plumage  is  a  rich  red  above 
and  a  lighter  shade  of  red  underneath  the  body.  The 
main  tail  feathers  are  black. 

Orpington  (White,  Black,  Buff,  Jubilee,  and  Single 
and  Rose  Comb  of  each  variety).  The  Orpingtons  are 
a  new  breed  of  general  purpose  fowls  that  has  become 
very  popular  in  America.  Although  originated  in 
England,  many  improved 
strains  have  been  bred  in 
this  country.  The  Or- 
pingtons are  a  large- 
sized,  compactly  built 
fowl,  broad  and  deep, 
with  a  fair  length  of  back 
and  body.  The  carcass 
of  the  Orpington  is  noted 
for  its  plumpness  and  full- 
ness of  breast.  The  White  Orpingtons  are  an  espe- 
cially good  laying  variety  of  this  breed. 

Java  (Black  and  Mottled).  This  breed  originated 
somewhere  in  the  United  States.  The  Javas  have 
a  body  of  greater  length  than  either  the  Plymouth 


FIG.  219.  —  White  Orpingtons. 


FARM  ANIMALS 


373 


FIG.  220.  —  Mottled  Javas. 


Rocks  or  the  Rhode  Island  Reds.     They  have  single 

combs.     The  face,  ear  lobes, 

and  wattles  are  bright  red. 
Dominique.     These  fowl 

resemble  in  feathering  the 

barred    Plymouth     Rocks, 

having  blue  barred  feathers 

and    a    rose    comb,   but  in 

form    they    are    more    like 

the    Hamburg.     They    are 

medium    in   all  particulars 

as  compared  with  other  general  purpose  breeds.     The 

Black  Java  was  crossed 
with  this  fowl  in  the  mak- 
ing of  the  Plymouth  Rock. 
Dorking  (White,  Silver. 
Gray,  and  Colored).  The 
Dorking,  of  English  origin, 
is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds 

American  Dominiques.          •  •    .  npi  •       i  j 

in  existence.  1  his  breed 
is  characterized  by  having  very  long,  broad,  deep,  and 
full  bodies,  low  set  on  the 
legs.  The  White  Dorkings 
have  a  rose  comb ;  the  other 
varieties  have  the  single 
comb.  The  Dorkings  have 
five  toes. 

Houdan.      This     is    the 

,  .  _,  .  FIG.  222.  —  Colored  Dorkings. 

most  popular  01  the  Trench 

breeds.  They  produce  large,  white-shelled  eggs,  are 
quick  to  develop,  and  make  a  very  acceptable  table 
fowl.  They  possess  a  large  crest  of  feathers  which 
covers  the  head  and  interferes  with  their  sight  of  ob- 


FIG.  221. 


374 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  223.  —  Houdans. 


jects   about  them  or  in  the  air.     With  a  body  much 

like  the  Orpington  they  are 
built  for  egg  and  for  meat 
production.  The  comb  is 
V-shaped  and  of  small  size. 
The  feet  have  five  toes  and 
the  plumage  is  black,  the 
ends  of  the  feathers  being 
tipped  with  white. 

Cornish  Indian  (Dark  and 
White).  This  is  a  close-feathered,  muscular  bird  which 
weighs  more  than  the  ap- 
parent size  would  indicate. 
It  is  a  good  general  purpose 
breed,  noted  for  the  rich 
flavor  known  only  to  this 
breed. 

Fancy  Breeds. --The 
fancy  breeds  are  not  adapted 
to  practical  purposes  and 
can  hardly  be  classed  as  farm 
breeds.  The  most  common 
the  Polish,  Game,  Silky,  Sultan,  Frizzle,  Rumpless, 
and  Bantams  of  several  varieties.  These  fowls  are 
not  bred  either  for  egg  or  for  meat  production.  They 
are  difficult  to  breed  true  to  color  and  shape,  requiring 
therefore  special  attention.  The  Bantams  are  often 
kept  as  pets,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  mingle 
with  the  other  fowl. 

Ducks.  —  All  varieties  of  ducks,  except  the  Mus- 
covy, have  descended  from  the  Mallard,  a  wild  duck. 
The  original  white  duck  is  probably  the  Aylesbury. 
A  large  business  has  sprung  up  in  this  country  in  furnish- 


FIG.  224.  —  Cornish  Indians. 

of  the  fancy  breeds   are 


FARM  ANIMALS 


375 


FIG.  225.  —  Pekin  Ducks. 


ing  young  ducks  for  the  market.  If  ducks  can  be  mar- 
keted when  they  are  10  to  12  weeks  old,  there  is  much 
profit  in  the  business.  If  sufficient  water  is  furnished 
them  for  drinking,  they 
thrive  well  without 
swimming  pools. 

Breeds  of  Ducks.  - 
Pekin.  This  is  the 
most  popular  and  prof- 
itable of  all  the  breeds. 
It  is  pure  white,  hardy, 
and  an  excellent  layer. 
Ducks  ten  weeks  old 
may  be  fattened  to  five 
pounds  weight  for  mar- 
keting. The  shape  is 
rather  upright,  the  rear  of  the  body  flat,  the  back  straight, 
and  the  breast  very  full.  These  ducks  originated  in 
China,  but  have  been  wonderfully  developed  in  America. 
Aylesbury.  This  heavier  but  not  so  prolific  breed 

is  preferred  by  some  to  the 
Pekin.  It  was  developed 
in  England. 

The  Rouen  was  also  de- 
veloped in  England,  though 
it  originated  in  France. 
It  compares  favorably  with 
the  Pekin  and  produces 
fine  winter  roasters.  The  color  is  nearly  the  same  as 
the  wild  Mallard. 

The  Black  Cayuga  is  an  American  bird.  It  has 
characteristics  similar  to  the  Pekin,  only  smaller,  but 
the  black  color  lowers  its  marketing  value. 


FIG.  226.  —  Rouen  Ducks. 


376 


FARM  ANIMALS 


FIG.  227.  —  Indian  Runners. 


Indian     Runner.     Because    of    its    egg    production 

this  breed  is  termed  the 
Leghorn  of  the  duck  family 
and  has  become  very  pop- 
ular. It  is  the  smallest  of 
the  breeds  here  described. 
It  is  of  almost  erect  car- 
riage and  has  a  long  neck. 
Muscovy.  -  -  This  breed 
probably  originated  in 
Peru.  It  is  not  allied  to 
the  other  breeds  in  any  way.  The  large  head  of  the 
drake  is  covered  with  a 
rough,  caruncled  red  skin 
somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  a  turkey  gobbler.  The 
drakes  are  disposed  to  be 
quite  pugnacious.  The 
female,  much  smaller 
than  the  male,  sits  well  and  makes  a  good  mother. 
For  flavor  the  Muscovy  cannot  be  equalled. 

Geese. — There  is  now  a  growing  market  for  geese 
to  be  used  as  a  large  table  fowl  in  place  of  the  turkey 
and  also  for  younger  and  daintier  small  roasters.  Geese 
are  good  grazers,  therefore  where  pastures  are  abundant 
little  other  food  need  be  given  them  during  the  grass 
season.  The  goslings  are  hardy  and  but  little  affected 
by  disease.  Some  profit  is  made  by  plucking  the  feathers 
from  the  breast  of  live  geese  and  selling  them  to  make 
pillows,  for  these  feathers  bring  the  highest  price  in  the 
market. 

Breeds  of  Geese.  --  Toulouse.  These  are  large- 
framed  birds,  sometimes  weighing  30  pounds  each.  They 


FIG.  228.  —  Colored  Muscovies. 


FARM  ANIMALS 


377 


FIG.  229. — Toulouse 
Geese. 


are  good  layers  and  usually  are  good  sitters.     Quiet  and 

peaceable,  they  bear  confinement  well.     The  Toulouse 

is  gray  in  color  and  has  a  loose  fold 

of  skin   in    aged  fowls  that  makes  a 

pouch  which  hangs  down  between  the 

legs  almost  touching  the  ground. 
Embden.     The    Embden    geese   are 

pure  white,  resembling  the  Toulouse 

in  form,  but  have  no    pouch.     They 

lay  fewer  eggs,  but  are  better  sitters. 

The  goslings  develop  early  and  in   10 

weeks  may  be  fattened  to  from  8  to 

10  pounds  weight. 
The    Africans    are   especially    good 

as  table  fowls.     Their  flesh  is  not  so 

coarse  as  that  of  other  geese.     They 

are  good  layers  and  the 
young  grow  very  rapidly. 
Chinese.  Geese  of  this 
class  may  be  considered  as 
the  "Ban- 
tams" of  the 
goose  family, 
for  they  are 
much  smaller 
than  other 
breeds.  They 

are  not  a  profitable  goose  on  the  farm. 
Turkeys.     America  is  the  natural  home 

of  the  turkey.     Our  domesticated  varieties 

have  sprung  from  the  wild  turkey  and  still 

retain  many  of  the  characteristics  of  their 

wild    progenitors.      The    wild    turkey    is 


FIG.  230.  —  Embden  Geese. 


378 


FARM   ANIMALS 


still  found  in  the  large  woods  of  many  states  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  Not  thriving  well 
in  confinement,  they  must  have  a  wide  range  for  the 
best  results.  They  cannot  be  raised  in  large  flocks 
together.  If  they  can  find  their  own  nests  in  a  brush 
heap  in  the  woods  and  raise  their  young  in  a  natural 
way,  as  the  wild  turkey  does,  they  are  healthier  and 
the  results  are  better.  The  young, 
called  poults,  are  at  first  very  tender 
and  liable  to  chill,  but  as  soon  as 
they  are  feathered  they  become  quite 
hardy. 

Breeds     of     Domestic     Turkeys.  - 
Bronze.     This  is  the  largest  breed,  the 
adult  male  weighing  about  36   pounds 
and  the  female  20  pounds  when  raised 
under  favorable  con- 
ditions.    They    have 
a    roving   disposition, 
FIG.  232.  —  Bronze     many    times    being 
found     over    a    mile 
from    their    home.       Because   of    its 
size  this  is  the  most  popular  breed. 

Narragansett.  This  breed  takes  its 
name  from  the  bay  by  that  name 
in  Rhode  Island,  where  turkeys  are 
bred  in  large  numbers.  These  tur- 
keys, gray  in  color,  do  not  roam  so 
far  as  the  Bronze  turkey. 

White  Holland.     This  turkey  is  in-    FIG.  233.  — Narragan- 

i       •         i  r  •  sett  Turkeys. 

creasing  in  popularity  because  of  its 
good  laying  qualities  and  the  fact  that   it    is  not  in- 
clined to  roam  so  far  as  other  turkeys.     It  is  not  so 


FARM  ANIMALS 


379 


heavy  as  the  Bronze  turkey.     As  its  name  indicates, 
it  has  a  white  plumage. 

Buff  turkey  and  Slate  turkey  are  two  varieties  that  are 
between  the   Bronze   and   the 
White  Holland  turkey  in  size. 
They   are    not   bred   in   great 
numbers. 

The  Black  turkey  has  been 
bred  for  years  in  England,  but 
there  are  very  few  representa- 
tives of  this  breed  in  America. 

Bourbon  Red  turkeys  were 
originated  in  Kentucky.  They 
compare  both  in  size  and  other 
characteristics  with  the  mam- 
moth Bronze,  the  only  difference  being  that  they  are 
red  instead  of  bronze. 


FIG.  234.  —  White  Holland  Tur- 
keys. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

Water  and  Dry  Matter.  —  An  analysis  of  any  food 
stuff  will  show,  first,  that  it  is  composed  of  water  and 
dry  matter.  The  proportion  of  each  may  be  determined 
by  weighing  the  substance,  then  heating  it  till  all  the 
water  is  driven  off  and  then  weighing  it  again.  A 
surprising  amount  of  water  will  be  found  in  all  foods. 
This  water,  although  it  increases  the  palatability  of 
the  food,  might  be  taken  as  a  drink  just  as  well,  for 
the  dry  matter  contains  the  substances  that  furnish 
the  animal  products  and  growth. 

If  now  the  dry  matter  in  foods  is  burned,  it  will  be 
found  that  after  all  the  food  that  can  be  burned  is 
consumed  there  still  remains  a  substance  called  ash. 

Ash. — This  residue  contains  the  incombustible  por- 
tion of  the  dry  matter.  The  ash  is  an  essential  in  the 
food  of  all  animals.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  the 
bones  and  is  found  in  all  other  parts  of  the  body.  Foods 
ordinarily  contain  a  large  enough  proportion  of  mineral 
matter  to  furnish  the  body  with  all  that  it  needs,  but 
sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  supply  it  directly  to  animals. 
Hens  are  fed  lime,  ground  oyster  shells,  and  ground 
bone  to  supply  this  lack  in  their  food.  Hogs  are  fed 
bone  meal,  ashes,  and  even  floats  to  give  enough  ash  to 
fulfill  all  the  demands  of  the  body.  Salt  is  furnished 
for  the  same  purpose  to  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep. 

380 


FEEDS  AND   FEEDING  381 

Three  Great  Classes. --The  part  of  the  food  that 
is  consumed  by  burning  is  the  part  called  organic 
matter.  The  organic  components  of  feeding  stuffs  fall 
into  three  classes,  Proteins,  Carbohydrates,  and  Fats. 

The  chief  consideration  in  feeding  is  to  obtain,  in 
the  correct  proportions  and  with  the  greatest  economy, 
a  supply  of  each  of  these  classes  of  foods  adequate  to 
build  up  the  body  and  to  furnish  the  animal  products 
desired. 

Note.  —  Dry  hay  contains  from  10  per  cent  to  20  per  cent  of  water. 
The  grains  contain  about  10  per  cent  and  silage  contains  as  high  as  80 
per  cent  of  water. 

Protein.  --The  chief  function  of  the  protein  in  food 
is  to  form  lean  tissue.  It  also  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant parts  of  milk  and  of  eggs.  Protein  contains 
other  elements  (see  page  26),  but  the  most  important  is 
nitrogen ;  on  this  account  the  protein  part  of  food  is 
called  nitrogenous.  This  is  the  most  expensive  con- 
stituent of  feeding  stuffs.  Foods  for  stock  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  digestible  protein  are  sold  on  the 
market  at  a  relatively  higher  price  than  any  others. 

Carbohydrates. --The  chief  functions  of  carbohy- 
drates are  to  furnish  energy  and  to  form  fat.  The 
largest  part  of  the  dry  matter  of  most  foods  as  eaten 
is  carbohydrates.  It  is  the  cheapest  part  of  food  for 
animals.  There  are  two  classes  of  carbohydrates  found 
in  pi  ants;  namely,  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract.  The 
fiber  is  the  hard  woody  framework  of  the  plant  and 
the  coarser  bran  of  grains.  It  is  of  very  little  food 
value  because  of  its  nondigestibility.  Nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract includes  the  more  easily  digested  carbohydrates, 
the  starches,  sugars,  and  gums.  It  is  called  nitrogen- 


382  FEEDS   AND   FEEDING 

free  extract  because  it  contains  no  nitrogen.  The 
carbohydrates  are  all  formed  from  CO2  in  the  air  with 
varying  proportions  of  H2O.  (See  page  34.) 

Fat  or  Ether  Extract.  -  -  The  fats  have  the  same 
functions  as  the  carbohydrates  —  furnishing  to  ani- 
mals in  a  condensed  form  energy  and  fat.  It  is 
because  of  the  fact  that  fats  are  two  and  one  fourth 
times  as  strong,  pound  for  pound,  in  producing  heat 
as  other  carbohydrates,  that  they  are  considered  sepa- 
rately in  feeding.  In  the  carbohydrates  the  carbon 
is  combined  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  proportion 
to  form  water,  whereas  the  carbon  in  fats  is  not  so 
combined. 

The  term  ether  extract  is  a  little  more  accurate  than 
fats.  In  the  tables  compiled  the  fats  not  only  include 
what  are  known  as  fats,  but  all  the  dry  matter  that  can 
be  dissolved  out  by  ether.  (See  page  34.)  Besides  fat 
they  include  wax  and  chlorophyll. 

Digestibility.  —  Not  all  the  food  elements  in  a  food 
stuff  are  available  for  the  use  of  the  animal.  Much 
depends  upon  the  digestibility  of  the  food.  The  di- 
gestibility of  the  food  itself  varies  according  to  the 
time  it  is  harvested ;  hay,  for  instance,  should  be  cut 
and  cured  just  before  its  seeds  have  ripened,  while  grain 
should  be  harvested  when  it  is  ripe. 

Digestibility  varies  with  different  classes  of  animals. 
Cattle  and  sheep  will  digest  a  larger  percentage  of  rough- 
age than  horses  or  pigs.  It  varies  slightly  also  with 
different  animals  of  the  same  class,  depending  on  the 
age  and  on  the  individual  peculiarities.  Some  animals 
are  easy  keepers,  because  they  digest  and  assimilate  a 
relatively  larger  proportion  of  the  food  that  they  eat 
than  others. 


FEEDS  AND   FEEDING  383 

It  is  evident  that  feeds  of  animals  cannot  be  deter- 
mined by  rule.  For  the  best  results,  the  judgment  of 
the  feeder  guided  by  rules  should  be  used  in  feeding 
each  animal. 

Note.  —  The  expression  in  percentage  showing  what  part  of  a  food 
element  is  digestible  is  called  the  coefficient  of  digestibility.  If  we 
know  the  weight  of  protein,  for  instance,  in  a  given  food,  we  may  find 
the  amount  available  for  any  class  of  animals  by  multiplying  this  weight 
by  the  coefficient  of  digestibility. 

Feeding  for  Maintenance.  —  Scientists  have  deter- 
mined quite  accurately  just  the  amount  of  food  re- 
quired to  keep  an  animal  in  normal  condition  without 
increasing  or  decreasing  in  weight  and  without  giving 
any  product  or  labor.  This  is  called  a  ration  for  main- 
tenance. For  instance,  it  has  been  determined  that 
the  average  dairy  cow,  for  each  100  pounds  of  her 
weight,  requires  for  her  maintenance  under  normal 
conditions  each  day : 

Protein  .07  Ib. 

Carbohydrates  .7     Ib. 

Ether  extract,  or  fat  .01  Ib. 

Other  classes  of  animals  require  other  proportions 
for  maintenance.  The  maintenance  ration  is  required 
for  keeping  up  the  body  so  that  it  may  be  in  condition 
to  give  work  or  product,  much  as  coal  must  be  consumed 
under  the  boiler  to  warm  the  water  before  steam  for 
work  is  formed. 

Ration  for  Product.  —  After  the  animal  has  its 
maintenance  ration,  the  additional  food  that  is  given 
may  result  in  some  valuable  product.  That  may  be 
increased  growth,  fat,  milk,  wool,  eggs,  or  performance 
of  work. 


384 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 


It  is  extra  food  given  after  the  maintenance  ration 
has  been  served  that  gives  the  products  for  which  the 
animal  is  kept.  The  profits  in  feeding  come  only  from 
feeding  a  ration  in  addition  to  the  maintenance  ration. 

FULL   RATION 


RATION  FOR 
MAINTENANCE 


RATION  FOR 
PRODUCT 


THREE-FOURTHS   RATION 


RATION  FOR 
MAINTENANCE 

RATION  FOR 
AVAILABLE 
PRODUCT 

HALF   RATION 


RATION  FOR 

MAINTENANCE 


NOTHING  FOR  PRODUCT 


From  the  above  diagrams  it  is  observed  that  a  full 
ration  will  give  the  maximum  product  and,  if  the  ration 
above  the  maintenance  costs  less  than  the  product 
produced,  the  maximum  profit.  If  three  fourths  of  a 
full  ration  is  fed,  the  product  is  cut  in  half,  and  if 
one-half  ration  is  fed,  there  is  nothing  left  for  the 
product  or  profit.  Liberal  feeding  is  the  only  profit- 
able feeding. 

It  may  be  that  the  cow,  for  instance,  fed  on  half  of 
a  full  ration  may  produce  some  milk,  but  she  must  do 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING  385 

it  by  drawing  on  the  reserves  in  the  form  of  flesh  or  fat 
in  her  body,  with  a  consequent  loss  of  weight. 

Scientific  Feeding.  —  Scientific  feeding  of  farm  ani- 
mals consists,  first,  in  knowing  the  composition  of  the 
body  of  the  animal  to  be  fed,  and  giving  the  animal  such 
food  as  shall  contain  the  elements  required  to  maintain 
the  body  tissues  and  in  such  quantities  and  proportions 
as  careful  experiment  may  determine  will  keep  the 
animal  without  loss  or  gain  of  weight.  Second,  the 
composition  and  weight  of  product  that  the  animal  gives 
should  be  known  and  an  additional  amount  of  food  con- 
taining the  elements  found  in  the  product  should  be 
fed  in  proper  proportions  and  in  quantity  sufficient  to 
make  up  the  weight  of  the  product. 

Compounding  Rations.  —  In  making  rations  for 
different  classes  of  farm  animals  such  a  combination 
of  foods  should  be  made  as  will  fulfill  the  following 
conditions  : 

First,  the  food  should  be  in  accord  with  the  physical 
character  of  the  animals  to  be  fed.  Garbage  should 
not  be  fed  to  horses,  neither  should  timothy  hay  be 
fed  to  hogs. 

Second,  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  should  be  fed  a 
combination  of  roughage,  such  as  hay,  fodder,  and  silage, 
to  give  bulk  to  the  ration,  and  some  concentrates,  such 
as  grains,  linseed  meal,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Third,  such  feeds  should  be  chosen  for  a  ration  as 
will  furnish  the  food  elements  necessary  for  the  animal 
at  the  smallest  cost.  This  will  usually  lead  the  farmer 
to  feed  only  the  products  of  his  farm.  It  may  in  some 
cases,  however,  be  more  economical  for  him  to  sell  cer- 
tain products  of  the  farm  and  to  buy  other  feeds  for 
his  stock. 

M.  &  H.  AG. 25 


386  FEEDS  AND   FEEDING 

Fourth,  the  ration  should  be  so  compounded  that 
the  ratio  between  the  protein  and  the  carbohydrate 
and  fat  shall  be  such  as  the  investigations  of  scientists 
have  found  to  be  the  best  for  the  purpose  for  which  the 
animal  is  fed.  This  ratio  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio 
and  may  be  found  for  each  class  of  animals,  in  the 
Appendix.  A  ration  so  compounded  is  called  a  balanced 
ration. 

Notes.  —  The  nutritive  ratio  best  adapted  to  any  animal  or  the 
nutritive  ratio  for  any  feed  is  obtained  by  comparing  the  amount  of 
protein  as  given  in  the  table  with  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  and  fats, 
after  the  fats  have  been  changed  to  the  carbohydrate  basis  by  multiply- 
ing them  by  2i. 

One  pound  of  cowpea  silage  is  found  to  contain  .015  pound  protein, 
.086  pound  carbohydrate,  and  .009  pound  fat.  Now,  if  the  weight  of 
fat  is  multiplied  by  2.25,  and  added  to  .086,  the  weight  of  the  carbo- 
hydrate, the  sum  is  .106.  .106  divided  by  .015  =  7.  There  is 
7  times  as  much  carbohydrate  as  protein.  This  may  be  represented 
in  the  form  of  a  proportion  as  follows  : 

carbohydrate  and  fat  :  protein  :  :  I  :  7. 

A  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  one  that  has  a  large  proportion  of  carbohy- 
drates and  fats  compared  with  the  protein.  If  the  carbohydrates  and 
fats  are  more  than  8  to  I  as  compared  with  protein,  the  ratio  is  said  to 
be  wide.  If  the  ratio  be  less  than  5.5  :  i,  it  is  said  to  be  narrow. 
A  ratio  between  a  wide  and  a  narrow  one  is  said  to  be  a  medium  nutri- 
tive ratio.  14  :  I  is  a  wide  nutritive  ratio,  7  :  I  is  a  medium  ratio, 
and  3:1  is  a  narrow  ratio. 

From  the  table  in  the  Appendix  make  a  list  of  eight  feeds  that  are 
concentrates  that  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  Make  a  similar  list 
of  four  forms  of  roughage  that  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio.  From 
the  same  table  make  a  list  of  five  feeds  that  have  a  wide  nutritive  ratio. 
Make  a  similar  list  of  six  roughages  that  have  a  wide  nutritive  ratio. 

Note.  —  For  the  dairy  cow  such  a  basis  for  feeding  has  been  made 
by  Professor  T.  L.  Haecker  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING  387 

His  tables  for  feeding  of  dairy  cows  are  given  in  a  bulletin  of  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station.  For  other  farm  animals  it  has  been  more  difficult 
to  calculate  the  analysis  and  weight  of  the  product  in  a  practical  way, 
but  scientists  are  at  work  on  the  problem.  Till  such  data  are  available, 
feeders  should  feed  balanced  rations  in  accord  with  the  tables  given  in 
the  Appendix,  which  are  largely  the  results  of  experiments  in  feeding 
made  in  Germany. 

Feeding  Dairy  Stock.  —  Pasturage.  In  the  spring 
and  summer  pasturage  is  the  chief  resource  in  feeding 
dairy  cows.  It  is  during  the  months  when  the  pas- 
turage is  good  that  cows  give  most  abundant  supplies 
of  milk  at  the  lowest  cost.  June  butter  is  considered 
to  be  the  best  butter  also,  because  of  the  flavor  given 
it  by  the  pastures. 

When  pasturage  is  abundant  it  is  not  necessary  to 
give  cows  that  are  dry  or  are  giving  a  moderate  amount 
of  milk  any  additional  food,  but  producers  of  a  large 
quantity  of  milk  may  be  given  some  grain  to  furnish 
the  protein  given  in  the  milk. 

Soiling  Crops.  —  In  the  late  summer  and  fall  when 
pastures  are  short,  stock  should  be  fed  some  green  fod- 
der. The  feeding  of  green  fodders  is  called  soiling. 
Corn  is  most  frequently  fed  for  this  purpose.  Very  often 
farmers  prepare  a  corn  field  or  a  sorghum  field  near  the 
barnyard  or  pasture  to  be  used  as  a  soiling  crop.  The 
seed  is  sown  or  planted  thick  in  the  rows.  A  large 
amount  of  green  stuff  may  be  raised  in  this  way  on  a 
small  plot  of  ground.  In  the  southwestern  states  Kaffir 
corn  is  used  extensively  as  a  soiling  crop. 

If  summer  silage  is  available,  it  will  be  found  more 
economical  for  feeding  than  growing  soiling  crops. 

Winter  Feeding.  --The  succulence  of  pasturage  and 
of  soiling  may  be  made  up  in  a  measure  by  feeding 


388  FEEDS  AND   FEEDING 

silage  or  root  crops.  The  use  of  such  feed  for  cows 
increases  the  milk  flow  beyond  the  actual  feeding 
value  of  the  food.  This  may  be  caused  by  its  benefi- 
cial effects  on  the  appetite  of  the  cow,  causing  her  to 
eat  more  than  she  otherwise  would. 

Clover  and  alfalfa  hay  contain  such  a  large  proportion 
of  protein  that  they  make  excellent  roughage  for  dairy 
cows.  Corn  fodder  and  corn  stover  are  used  exten- 
sively as  roughage.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  con- 
centrates fed  for  milk  production.  The  cow  needs  a 
variety  in  order  to  keep  her  appetite  on  edge,  and  on 
that  account  it  may  be  best  to  purchase  one  of  the 
meals  or  some  of  the  by-products.  Most  dairymen 
favor  feeding  a  small  quantity  of  linseed  or  cottonseed 
meal.  Bran,  shorts,  oats,  corn,  and  barley  are  the 
concentrates  most  generally  depended  upon. 

Amount  of  Feed.  —  As  has  been  indicated  before, 
the  dairy  cow  should  have  a  maintenance  ration  and 
in  addition  then  be  fed  according  to  the  amount  and 
quality  of  product  that  she  produces.  A  cow  that 
gives  a  large  quantity  of  rich  milk  should  be  fed  more 
than  one  that  gives  a  smaller  product  of  low  fat  content. 

A  rough  and  ready  rule  for  determining  the  amount 
of  feed  to  be  given  is  stated  thus  :  feed  the  cow  all 
the  roughage  that  she  will  eat  up  clean,  and  give  her 
one  pound  of  concentrates  for  each  three  pounds  of 
milk  that  she  produces.  It  is  far  better,  however,  to 
figure  out  a  balanced  ration  according  to  the  feeding 
standards  and  know  that  each  cow  is  getting  just  what 
she  should  have  to  maintain  the  body  and  to  produce 
the  milk. 

If  cows  are  housed  in  uncomfortable  barns  or  are 
not  treated  kindly,  the  ration  for  maintenance  must 


FEEDS  AND   FEEDING  389 

be  increased.  It  requires  heat  that  comes  from  the  con- 
sumption of  food  to  make  up  the  loss  of  heat  sustained 
by  poor  housing,  or  through  drinking  ice-cold  water. 

Feeding  Beef  Cattle.  —  Feeding  beef  cattle  for  the 
market  is  more  economically  done  when  the  animals 
are  young  and  growing.  Some  protein  should  be  given 
to  furnish  the  growing  tissues,  but  after  full  growth  is 
obtained  a  fat-forming  ration  should  be  supplied. 
The  principal  food  in  the  ration  for  fattening  cattle  is 
corn.  Feeders  of  experience  have  found  that  steers 
gain  more  rapidly  in  weight  and  form  fat  more  eco- 
nomically if  given  foods  that  are  palatable  even  though 
they  may  be  rich  in  protein.  Some  protein  is  neces- 
sary to  supply  needed  nitrogen,  and  it  may  serve  to 
produce  better  assimilation  of  other  foods  eaten.  On 
this  account  oil  meal  is  often  given  as  a  part  of  the 
ration  for  fattening  steers. 

Note.  —  The  following  rations  have  been  fed  successfully  in  fatten- 
ing steers  in  different  parts  of  the  country : 

FOR  STEERS  WEIGHING  1000  LB. 

I  c  Ib.  clover  hay 

1 61b.com  silage  8  lb'  mixed  ha7 
1 3  Ib.  corn  meal  12.5  lb.  corn  meal 
3  lb.  wheat  bran                                            3  ^  "'heat  bran 
.  2  lb.  oil  meal 

8  lb.  alfalfa  hay 
I  2  lb.  corn  meal  5  lb.  clover  hay 

5  lb.  ground  oats  5°  ^.  beet  pulp 

1 1  lb.  corn  meal 

5  lb.  mixed  timothy  and  clover  2  lb.  cottonseed  meal 

30  lb.  silage 
1 3  lb.  oats  and  peas 

Purchase  of  Feeds. — -The  price  of  beef  in  this  country 
does  not  warrant  the  purchase  of  feeds  altogether  for 


390  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

feeding  cattle.  One  who  has  pasturage  and  a  quantity 
of  roughage  and  grain  grown  on  the  farm  may  profit- 
ably use  it  by  converting  it  into  beef. 

Feeding  Swine.  —  Hogs  will  convert  the  products  of 
the  farm  into  flesh  more  economically  than  any  other 
farm  animal.  Besides  this,  many  by-products  of  the 
farm  and  of  the  dairy  that  would  otherwise  be  lost  may 
be  used  in  producing  pork.  Formerly  hogs  were  kept 
until  they  were  one  or  two  years  old  before  being  sent 
to  the  market;  this  made  an  animal,  when  fattened, 
from  300  to  500  pounds  in  weight.  The  market  now 
pays  quite  as  much  per  hundred  for  the  smaller  hog, 
weights  from  150  to  250  pounds  being  accepted  by  the 
pork  packers.  There  is  much  more  profit  also  to  the 
farmer  in  fattening  these  smaller  pigs  for  the  shorter 
period.  The  greatest  profit  is  secured  by  utilizing 
pastures  for  early  growth  with  a  relatively  small 
amount  of  grain  and  then  finishing  the  hog  on  grain, 
preferably  corn. 

To  produce  the  fat  pig,  a  wide  ration  containing  a 
relatively  large  supply  of  carbohydrates  should  be  fed. 
For  the  growth  of  bone  and  of  body  and  to  make  a 
healthful  condition  of  the  body  protein  foods  should 
not  be  neglected. 

Dairy  Wastes.  —  Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  are 
probably  the  best  means  of  furnishing  the  nitroge- 
nous element  necessary  for  raising  young  pigs  most 
economically.  Whey  contains  milk  sugar,  which 
provides  carbohydrates.  If  with  the  dairy  wastes 
there  is  added  corn  or  barley,  we  probably  have 
the  ideal  feed.  In  dairy  regions  the  growing  of  pigs 
from  the  by-products  of  the  dairy  makes  a  very  profit- 
able business. 


FEEDS  AND   FEEDING  391 

Corn  Feeding.  --The  great  dependence  of  the  farmer 
for  fattening  hogs  is  on  corn.  This  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  carbohydrate  material  and  will  put  fat 
on  the  hog  very  rapidly  if  reenforced  with  some 
protein  foods.  If  the  price  of  corn  is  low,  it  may  be 
profitable  to  finish  the  fattening  process  with  corn  alone. 
An  exclusive  corn  ration  during  the  growing  period  is 
likely  to  result  in  a  weakened  constitution  and  a  con- 
sequent invitation  to  disease. 

To  furnish  the  requisite  amount  of  ash,  hogs  should 
have  before  them  at  all  times  a  mixture  of  charcoal, 
ashes,  and  a  small  amount  of  salt.  Ground  bone  is  also 
valuable  for  furnishing  mineral  matter. 

Because  of  the  extensive  use  of  corn  in  pork  pro- 
duction there  has  grown  up  a  relation  between  the 
price  of  corn  and  of  pork.  As  a  rule,  a  high  price  for 
corn  means  a  correspondingly  high  price  for  pork. 
Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine 
the  amount  of  gain  in  weight  of  a  hog  that  may  be 
credited  to  a  given  quantity  of  corn  fed  under  ordinary 
conditions.  It  has  been  agreed  that  one  bushel  of 
good  corn  will  produce  a  gain  of  about  10  pounds  in 
the  weight  of  a  hog  during  its  growing  and  fattening 
period.  The  marketing  of  corn  through  the  hog  will 
usually  be  found  to  be  the  best  way  to  get  a  maximum 
price  for  the  corn  grown  on  the  farm. 

Many  feeders  of  cattle  feed  whole  corn  to  their 
steers.  About  15  per  cent  of  this  may  pass  through 
the  animal  undigested.  One  shote  is  placed  in  the 
feed  lot  to  follow  each  steer  so  as  to  clean  up  the  un- 
digested corn,  thus  utilizing  the  waste. 

Hogs  may  harvest  the  corn  crop  with  a  very  little 
loss  of  corn  if  they  are  allowed  to  run  in  a  part  of  the 


392 


FEEDS  AND   FEEDING 


corn  field  fenced  off  from  the  whole.  The  hogs  are 
allowed  to  clean  up  one  part  thoroughly,  then  the  divi- 
sion fence  is  moved  to  take  in  another  portion  of  the 
field.  This  is  called  "  hogging  off  corn."  As  ordi- 
narily practiced  it  is  a  wasteful  process,  but  by  careful 
management  the  hogs  may  be  made  to  gain  as  much 
from  the  corn  consumed  as  if  it  were  husked  and  fed 
in  the  pens,  saving  all  the  labor  of  husking. 

Note.  —  The  following  food  stuffs  for  fattening  hogs  have  been  used 
in  different  parts  of  the  country  with  success : 


In  the  North 


Clover 

Roots 

Pumpkin 

Corn 

Barley 

Peas 

Tankage 

Skim  milk 


In  the  West 


In  the  South 


f  Alfalfa 
Kaffir  corn 
Corn 

Alfalfa 
Sorghum 
Sweet  potatoes 
Peanuts 
Soy  beans 
Corn 


The  question  often  arises,  Shall  the  grains  be  fed  whole,  or  shall  they 
be  ground  to  a  meal  before  feeding  ?  If  the  feed  is  palatable  in  its  natural 
whole  condition,  and  if  it  is  thoroughly  masticated  by  the  animal,  it  is 
not  best  to  go  to  the  expense  of  grinding.  In  general  if  the  expense 
of  grinding  is  6  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  feed,  it  is  not  a  profitable 
operation. 

Feeding  Sheep. — Next  to  swine,  sheep  will  return 
a  larger  gain  for  each  unit  of  food  consumed  than  any 
other  animal.  They  are  valuable  also  in  cleaning  up 
weeds  and  waste  roughage  that  will  not  be  eaten  by 
other  kinds  of  stock. 

Growing  sheep  require  a  narrow  ration  to  furnish  the 
protein  necessary  for  the  increasing  weight  of  tissue, 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING 


393 


but  for  fattening  mature  sheep  the  ration  may  be  con- 
siderably wider. 

Sheep  will  consume  hay  and  fodder  of  almost  all 
kinds,  but  thrive  and  produce  the  best  gains  on  the 
legumes,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  pea  straw,  and  bean 
straw.  Corn  is  the  standard  feed  for  fattening  sheep, 
but  variety  and  palatability  are  given  by  mixing  with  it 
oats,  bran,  and  linseed  meal.  When  screenings  can  be 
obtained  cheaply,  thousands  of  sheep  and  lambs  are 
fitted  for  the  market  at  feeding  stations  near  the  large 
flour  mills.  The  green  pea  pods  obtained  from  pea- 
canning  factories  are  put  into  silos  and  furnish  a  cheap 
feed  for  fattening  sheep  and  lambs. 

In  Colorado  many  sheep  and  lambs  are  fed  on  beet 
pulp,  a  refuse  of  the  beet  sugar  factories. 

Feeding  Horses. --The  digestive  apparatus  of  a 
horse,  unlike  that  of  cattle,  is  not  adapted  to  the  con- 
sumption of  large  amounts  of  coarse  foods.  From  the 
table  in  the  Appendix  it  will  be  noticed  that  a  horse  at 
heavy  work  requires  1.7  pounds  of  digestible  dry  matter* 
for  each  100  pounds  of  weight,  or  17  pounds  for  a  1000- 
pound  horse.  To  get  this  amount  of  nutriment  from 
hay  only,  he  would  need  to  consume  more  than  40 
pounds  daily.  This  would  be  an  impossibility  and 
shows  the  necessity  of  giving  the  nutriment  in  a  more 
concentrated  form.  Ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  hay  is  all 
that  a  working  horse  should  consume  each  day. 

The  most  common  ration  for  horses  is  made  up  of 
timothy  hay  and  oats.  Experience  has  shown  this  to 
be  a  good  combination  for  horses.  Good  timothy  hay 
is  usually  without  dust  and  is  relished  by  the  horse. 
Oats,  besides  furnishing  the  protein  necessary,  act  as 
a  tonic  to  horses  and  seem  to  give  them  spirit  and 


394  FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

life.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  corn  may  be 
substituted  for  oats  and  some  experiments  show  that  the 
horses  are  kept  even  more  economically  on  corn  than  on 
oats.  There  is  a  popular  notion  that  corn  is  too  heat- 
ing in  its  effect  to  be  fed  to  horses,  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence of  this  except  the  fact  that  horses  may  be  fattened 
easily  on  a  corn  diet.  Wheat  bran  is  also  used  success- 
fully as  an  additional  feed  with  corn  or  with  oats. 
Silage  may  be  fed  in  limited  quantities  and  carrots  are 
especially  good  for  horses. 

Feeding  Poultry.  —  Poultry  are  omnivorous.  They 
eat  and  demand,  to  give  the  best  results,  all  kinds  of 
feeds.  When  they  are  on  free  range,  they  pick  up  the 
foods  that  they  need  in  the  proper  proportions.  They 
pick  up  sand,  pebbles,  glass,  shells,  and  lime  to  furnish 
the  mineral  matter  that  they  desire.  Grass,  clover,  and 
weed  seeds  furnish  the  green  matter.  Insects  and  worms 
furnish  the  animal  matter,  and  grains  furnish  the  solid 
dry  matter.  When  poultry  are  kept  from  free  range,  all 
of  these  classes  of  foods  should  be  furnished  by  the  feeder. 

Successful  feeding  for  eggs  in  winter  requires  that 
hens  should  have  before  them,  preferably  in  self-feed- 
ing hoppers,  (a)  grit,  ground  oyster  shells,  and  char- 
coal ;  (ti)  a  dry  mash  made  by  mixing  a  variety  of 
ground  grains  to  produce  a  balanced  ration ;  (r)  ground 
green  bone  and  meat  scraps ;  (d)  steamed  clover  or 
alfalfa,  roots,  or  other  form  of  succulence ;  (e)  whole 
grain  thrown  in  the  litter  so  that  they  will  scratch  for  it. 

Feeds  furnished  as  stated  make  a  ration  similar  to 
that  given  by  free  range,  and  if  other  conditions  are 
favorable,  result  in  a  large  egg .  production  when  the 
prices  are  the  highest.  Skim  milk  being  rich  in  pro- 
tein is  a  good  drink  for  poultry  producing  eggs. 


FEEDS  AND   FEEDING 


395 


Notes.  —  Compounding  a  balanced  ration.  Suppose  we  wished 
to  compound  a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing  about  1000  pounds  and 
giving  about  1 6^  pounds  of  milk  daily.  We  have  the  following  feeds  on 
hand  :  clover  hay,  corn  stover,  bran,  corn  meal,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Now  by.  consulting  the  feeding  standards  from  the  table  in  the 
Appendix,  we  find  that  such  a  cow  as  described  will  need  for  each 
hundred  pounds  of  weight  2.7  pounds  of  dry  matter,  .2  pound  of 
protein,  i.i  pounds  carbohydrates,  and  .04  pound  of  fats,  or  ether 
extract,  making  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  6. 

How  shall  these  food  elements  be  supplied  from  the  foods  on  hand  ? 
In  making  up  a  ration  for  cows  from  20  to  40  pounds  of  roughage  should 
be  supplied  daily  and  very  much  less  of  the  concentrates.  Too  much 
concentrates  fed  to  a  cow  giving  milk  is  liable  to  produce  garget,  a  dis- 
ease of  the  udder.  Cottonseed  meal  and  linseed  meal  should  be  fed 
with  great  care  in  amounts  not  to  exceed  3  pounds  daily. 

With  these  facts  in  mind,  let  us  make  up  a  ration  and  compare  it 
with  the  requirements  given  in  the  standard. 

TRIAL  RATION 


FOOD 

LB.     FED 
DAILY 

DRY 
MATTER 

PRO- 
TEIN 

CARBO- 
HYDRATE 

FAT  OR 
ETHER 
EXT. 

NUTRI- 
TIVE 
RATIO 

Red  clover  hay    . 

15   lb. 

12.7 

1.07 

5.72 

.27 

I         5.8 

Corn  stover    .... 

7.5   lb. 

4.4 

•15 

2.48 

.04 

I      2O. 

Bran    

2.C   lb. 

1.5 

.  5 

I.  O2 

.07 

I         3.7 

Corn  meal      .... 

3 

2.5 

.007 

1.95 

.1 

I       10.2 

Cottonseed  meal  . 

i  lb. 

•9 

•37 

.16 

.  I  2 

I          1.2 

Total      .... 

22. 

1.897 

n-33 

.60 

i      6.6 

Standard  for  looo-lb.  cow 

27. 

2. 

1  1. 

•4 

i      6. 

From  the  table  the  weight  of  food  elements  expressed  in  decimals 
of  a  pound  must  be  multiplied  by  the  number  of  pounds  selected  in  the 
ration. 

When  these  amounts  are  added  we  have  the  total  nutrients  to  com- 


396  FEEDS  AND   FEEDING 

pare  with  the  standard.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  ration  is  short  of 
dry  matter  5  pounds.  This  is  not  of  much  consequence.  It  is  slightly 
lacking  in  protein  and  is  slightly  in  excess  of  the  requirement  for  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
weight  of  fats  by  zi,  adding  the  product  to  the  weight  of  carbohydrates 
and  dividing  the  sum  by  the  weight  of  protein  (.6x2.25-1-11.33) 
-H  1.897  =6.6.  The  ratio  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  is  I  :  6.6. 

This  indicates  that  the  ratio  is  a  little  too  wide  to  conform  to  the 
standard.  By  looking  at  it  carefully  it  becomes  evident  that  it  might 
be  slightly  changed  in  a  number  of  ways  to  make  it  conform  more 
nearly  to  the  standard.  A  few  more  pounds  of  clover,  which  has  a 
narrower  ratio,  might  be  added,  at  the  same  time  reducing  slightly  the 
amount  of  corn  meal.  Other  changes  might  be  made  that  would  give 
the  same  result.  The  ration  as  it  stands  is  not  bad  at  all.  It  is  not 
expected  that  the  ration  will  be  made  to  conform  exactly  to  the  standard. 
The  protein  content,  however,  should  not  vary  much  from  the  standard, 
and  on  account  of  the  cost  of  nitrogenous  foods,  should  be  slightly  less, 
rather  than  more,  than  is  there  given.  It  requires  considerable  study 
and  the  exercise  of  good  judgment  to  make  up  the  best  feeding  ration 
from  a  given  number  of  foods. 

Make  a  ration  for  dairy  cow  weighing  900  pounds,  giving  22  pounds 
of  milk  a  day,  from  the  following:  red  clover  hay,  linseed  meal,  oats, 
and  corn  silage.  If  your  first  guess  does  not  make  a  ration  that  con- 
forms to  the  standard  fairly  well,  try  again,  varying  the  weight  of  the 
several  foods  to  give  the  nutrients  required. 

Exercises.  —  (i.)  Make  a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  weighing  850 
pounds  and  giving  27!  pounds  of  milk  daily,  from  the  following 
feeds:  timothy  hay,  corn  silage,  linseed  meal  (new  process),  and 
wheat  shorts. 

(2)  Make  a  balanced  ration  for  a   I2oo-pound  horse  at  moderate 
work  from  the  following:   timothy  hay,  wheat  bran,  and  oats. 

(3)  Make  a  ration   for  fattening  sheep  averaging    175  pounds  in 
weight,  from  corn  silage,  bran,  and  oats. 

(4)  A  farmer  fed   each  of  his  cows,    averaging    1000   pounds  in 
weight,  about  10  pounds  of  timothy  hay,  16  pounds  of  sorghum  silage, 
and  4  pounds  of  corn  and  cob  meal  daily.      He  was  getting  an  average 
of  150  pounds  of  butter  from   his   cows  for  the  year.      Suggest  some 


FEEDS  AND   FEEDING  397 

changes    that   might   be  made   in    this  ration   that   would  better  the 
results. 

(5)  A  stock  feeder  buys  steers,  weighing  about  900  pounds,  to 
fatten.      What   amounts    of  corn   fodder,   old  process,   oil   meal,  and 
wheat  bran  should  be  used  during  the  main  period  ? 

(6)  If  I  have  200  pounds  of  separator  skimmed  milk  to  feed  daily 
to  10  growing  hogs,  weighing  i  50  pounds  each,  what  quantities  of  corn 
and  wheat  bran  should  be  used  with  the  milk  to  give  the  best  results  ? 

(7)  Make  a  ration  for  feeding   100  pounds  of  Wyandotte  laying 
hens,  each  hen  averaging  6  pounds  in  weight,  using  wheat,  beef  scraps, 
steamed  red  clover  hay,  and  oats. 

(8)  Make  up  rations  for  the  different  classes  of  stock  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, using  the  feeds  that  are  available  on  the  farm. 

Note.  —  The  cost  of  feeds  should  be  considered  in  compounding 
a  ration.  It  may  be  more  profitable  to  feed  an  unbalanced  ration  than 
to  feed  a  balanced  one,  depending  on  the  price  of  certain  feeds.  Unless 
the  price  of  feeds  is  carefully  considered,  one  may  feed  a  balance-! 
ration  at  a  constant  loss. 


CHAPTER  IX 
FARM   MANAGEMENT 

BY  PROFESSOR  ANDREW  Boss,  MINNESOTA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

UNDER  the  term  farm  management  is  included  the 
conduct  of  the  business  of  a  farm  in  connection  with 
actually  growing  the  various  crops  and  classes  of  live 
stock.  The  one  who  directs  or  is  responsible  for  the 
management  is  termed  the  farm  manager. 

Farm  management  in  its  best  interpretation  means 
the  application  of  progressive  scientific  and  business 
principles  to  the  business  of  farming. 

The  farm  manager  holds  the  same  relation  to  the 
farm  and  its  business  as  does  the  business  manager  to 
the  store  or  other  business  enterprise ;  that  is,  he  is  the 
one  responsible  for  the  success  or  failure  of  the  enter- 
prise from  the  financial  point  of  view.  Therefore,  he 
must  know  every  detail  of  crop  growth,  of  cost  of  pro- 
duction, of  marketing,  of  operating,  and  of  all  business 
transactions  performed  in  connection  with  the  farm. 

Farming  is  a  business,  and  the  one  who  can  grow  the 
largest  crops  of  the  best  quality  and  at  the  same  time 
produce  them  at  the  lowest  cost,  sell  them  at  the  high- 
est price,  and  make  the  best  investment  of  the  money 
received  should  rank  as  the  best  farm  manager.  While 
farming  has  not  commonly  been  regarded  as  a  business, 
the  fact  remains  that  the  successful  financial  opera- 
tion of  a  farm  presents  a  more  complex  problem  and 

398 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  399 

involves  at  least  as  much  business  ability  and  tact  as 
is  required  in  operating  a  store  or  mercantile  establish- 
ment doing  the  same  volume  of  business. 

A  farmer  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  elements 
of  soil  fertility,  of  the  principles  of  the  movement  of 
soil  water,  of  soil  bacteria  and  their  action,  of  plant 
growth,  of  varieties  and  species  of  plants,  of  the  effect 
of  one  crop  on  the  crop  following,  and  of  the  care  -of 
seeds  and  forage. 

He  must  also  understand  animals  and  how  to  feed 
and  care  for  them,  and  in  addition  he  must  know  how 
to  buy  and  sell  to  advantage,  to  make  contracts,  and 
to  plan  his  buildings  and  farm  so  as  to  economize  labor 
and  distribute  it  to  advantage. 

The  farm  manager  who  would  successfully  conduct 
his  business  may  profit  by  the  example  of  the  merchant. 
The  merchant  takes  an  inventory  of  his  stock,  con- 
siders the  demand  for  his  goods,  both  present  and  pro- 
spective, notes  the  supply  and  cost  of  each  article  of 
commerce,  the  labor  required  to  operate  his  business  and 
any  other  items  of  expense  that  may  be  legitimate  to 
the  business,  and  regulates  his  purchases  and  prices 
accordingly.  If  the  business  is  large,  it  is  organized 
into  departments  with  the  labor  and  accounting  so 
systematized  as  to  show  the  profit  or  loss  from  each 
department  and  from  the  business  as  a  whole.  The 
farm  manager  should  likewise  take  an  inventory  of  his 
capital,  stock,  and  equipment.  He  should  consider 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  demands  that  will  be 
made  upon  it  by  the  crops  grown,  the  sources  from 
which  fertility  may  be  renewed  and  at  what  cost ;  he 
must  study  the  markets  and  demands  for  the  various 
crops  and  the  possibility  of  handling  them  at  a  profit; 


400  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

the  cost  of  producing  each  of  the  crops,  including  the 
labor  supply,  the  interest  on  investment  and  other 
similar  expenditures  that  affect  the  final  result,  and  the 
probable  net  profit  that  will  be  returned.  Large  farms 
may  likewise  be  organized  into  departments  and  ac- 
counts kept  with  the  cows,  the  pigs,  the  grain  crops, 
the  garden,  and  similar  enterprises.  The  business 
statement  at  the  end  of  the  year  will  then  show  which 
lines  have  been  most  profitable  and  will  enable  the 
manager  to  drop  out  those  that  are  unprofitable. 

INVESTMENTS 

On  no  other  one  thing  does  financial  success  rest 
so  strongly  as  on  wise  investments.  One  may  pay  so 
much  for  a  farm  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  produce 
revenue  enough  to  meet  the  operating  expenses  and 
pay  even  the  normal  interest  on  the  money  invested. 
Again,  one  may  invest  in  a  farm  which  will  produce  well, 
but  for  the  product  of  which  there  is  no  available  mar- 
ket, and  the  business  is  consequently  operated  at  a 
loss ;  or  the  farmer  may  invest  so  much  in  the  farm  it- 
self that  not  enough  capital  is  available  for  operating 
the  farm  well.  A  medium-sized  farm  well  operated  will 
pay  greater  profits  than  a  large  one  poorly  managed. 

Farm  machinery  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  means 
of  reducing  the  cost  of  production,  in  that  it  saves  man 
labor  and  enables  the  farmer  to  handle  large  acreages ; 
and  yet  many  farmers  are  driven  out  of  their  homes  by 
the  foreclosure  of  mortgages  given  for  farm  machinery 
for  which  they  had  little  use.  Too  often  farmers  pur- 
chase machinery  because  a  neighbor  has  it  rather  than 
because  carefully  made  calculations  show  that  it  would 
be  a  profitable  investment.  A  safe  rule  is  to  buy  no 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  401 

machine  until  careful  calculation  indicates  that  the 
cost  of  production  of  a  certain  crop  or  product  will  be 
reduced  thereby. 

Note. —  If  the  average  annual  cost  for  a  corn  harvester  is  $18.62, 
the  acre  cost  for  machinery  is  62  cents,  if  30  acres  are  cut,  which  is 
cheaper  than  hand  cutting  can  usually  be  done.  If  only  10  acres  are 
cut  yearly,  the  acre  cost  for  machinery  will  be  $  1 .86,  which  is  consider- 
ably beyond  the  cost  of  cutting  by  hand. 

The  acre  cost  of  harvesting  on  small  fields  would  be  less  were  the 
corn  harvested  by  hand,  but  the  wisdom  of  harvesting  corn  quickly 
when  matured  and  the  possibility  of  avoiding  frost  by  cutting  large 
amounts  with  machinery  must  be  also  considered.  The  larger  the 
acreage  to  be  cut,  the  cheaper  becomes  the  cost  of  machinery  an  acre, 
though  the  labor  cost  will  remain  about  the  same. 

CUTTING  CORN  WITH   MACHINE  vs.   BY  HAND 

Corn  binder,  value  $125.00: 

Annual  depreciation,  ${2.50 

Interest  on  depreciated  investment,  4. 1  2 

Repairs,  shelter,  insurance,  2.00 

Total  annual  cost,  $18.62 

Corn  raised,  20  acres : 

Machinery  cost  an  acre,  .93 

Cost  an  acre  of  harvesting  corn  with  corn  harvester : 

Machinery  cost,  .93 

Cutting  and  binding  (horse  and  man  labor),  .666 

Shocking  and  tying,  .526 

Picking  up  ears,  .249 

Twine,  .467 

Total  cost  an  acre,  $2.838 

Cost  an  acre  of  harvesting  corn  by  hand  I  acre  a  day 

each  man  : 

Labor  including  board  —  $2.60  a  day,  $2.60 

Twine —  general  expense,  .  I  o 

Total  $2.70 

M.  &  H.  AG. 26 


402  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

Farmers  are  often  tempted  to  invest  money  in  build- 
ings which  are  not  called  for  by  the  probable  returns 
from  the  investment.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
buildings  in  themselves  are  unproductive  unless  they 
house  animals,  crops,  machinery,  or  products  that  are 
especially  benefited  by  the  protection.  Here,  again, 
the  revenue  to  be  derived  or  the  profits  to  be  gained 
should  be  carefully  calculated  before  the  investment 
is  made.  In  fact,  good  business  policy  dictates  that 
in  every  transaction  on  the  farm,  even  to  the  purchase 
of  a  cow  or  the  erection  of  a  fence,  the  cost  should  be 
compared  with  the  increased  income  probable  from  the 
investment. 

ANNUAL  COST  OF  SHELTER  FOR  EACH  ANIMAL 


Cost  of  barn  36  X  100  ft .    $4000.00 

Provides  shelter  for  40  head  of  cattle. 

Annual  cost,     Interest 6.0  % 

Insurance -5  % 

Depreciation 3-°% 

Paint  and  repairs I .  <j  % 

Total  annual  cost II. O% 

II.o  per  cent  on  $4000.00  equals  $440.00,  annual  cost. 
$440.00  distributed  over  40  head  of  cattle  equals  $11.00,    the 
annual  cost  a  head  for  shelter  alone. 

The  cost  a  head  in  this  case  is  exorbitant,  and  only  first-class  cows 
of  high  producing  capacity  can  consistently  be  sheltered  in  such  a  barn. 
If  the  same  barn  were  so  constructed  as  to  shelter  the  horses  and  sheep 
and  to  house  grain,  hay,  and  other  products,  the  expense  might  be 
warranted  by  the  greater  returns  from  the  investment. 

It  is  possible  to  build  a  barn  for  $1500  to  $2000  that  will  com- 
fortably shelter  40  cows,  in  which  case  the  annual  cost  a  cow  would 
be  greatly  reduced. 


FARM  MANAGEMENT  403 

8 

Cost  of  barn $  2000.00 

Annual  cost,     Interest 

Insurance 

Depreciation 

Paint  and  repairs 

Total  annual  cost 

1 1. o  per  cent  on  $2000  equals  $220.00,  annual  cost. 
$220.00  distributed  over  40  cows  equals  $5.50  annual  cost  a  head, 
or  a  saving  of  $220.00  yearly  in  cost  of  producing  milk. 

FARM  LABOR 

The  labor  question  presents  one  of  the  most  difficult 
problems  in  the  management  of  a  farm.  Labor  prop- 
erly employed  should  produce  returns  in  excess  of 
its  cost.  The  value  of  a  good  farm  manager  lies  quite 
as  much  in  his  ability  so  to  select  and  direct  labor  that 
it  will  yield  a  profit,  as  it  does  in  his  ability  to  drive  a 
good  bargain  or  sell  his  crops  well.  The  only  reason 
for  employing  labor  is  to  increase  the  product  and  con- 
sequent profit. 

While  the  farmer  does  not  usually  consider  his  time 
nor  the  time  of  the  members  of  his  family  who  partici- 
pate in  the  work  of  the  farm  as  an  item  of  cost,  he  should 
do  so  and  should  so  direct  such  labor  as  to  secure  at 
least  the  ordinary  rate  of  wages  for  farm  help  for  the 
time  of  himself  and  the  members  of  his  family  who 
contribute  to  the  operation  of  the  farm. 

The  adjustment  of  labor  so  as  to  provide  constant 
employment  throughout  the  year  is  one  of  the  difficult 
problems  of  the  farm.  Where  a  single  line  of  farming 
is  followed,  as  grain  raising,  labor  is  in  strong  demand 
only  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  resulting  in  high 


404 


FARM   MANAGEMENT 


wages  at  that  time.  Rotation  of  crops  combined  with 
stock  raising  or  other  specialties  distributes  the  demand 
for  labor  over  the  year,  resulting  in  more  constant 
employment  of  the  labor  of  the  farmer  and  his  family 
and  in  a  more  uniform  wage  rate  for  hired  labor.  The 
farm  manager  who  can  so  arrange  his  system  of  farming 
that  hired  labor  will  be  needed  when  it  can  be  cheaply 
employed  and  dispensed  with  when  in  strong  demand 
should  have  no  difficulty  in  securing  a  profit  from  the 
employment  of  labor.  In  determining  the  profits 
from  the  farm,  all  items  of  labor  cost  must  be  charged 
against  the  enterprises  for  which  labor  is  used.  Thus 
board  must  be  added  to  fhe  rate  of  wages  in  the  neigh- 
borhood to  get  the  full  cost  of  labor,  as  the  hired  laborer 
usually  lives  with  the  family. 

METHOD  OF  DETERMINING  RATE  OF  WAGES  AN  HOUR  FOR  ALL 
FARM  LABOR  EXCEPT  DAY  WAGES 

(From  Table  in,  Bulletin  48,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.) 

Northfield  Route,  Month  of  August,  1904 


OWNER  OF  FARM 

NAME  OF  LABORER 

HR. 

WAGES 

BOARD 

TOTAL 

RATE  PER 
HOUR 

John  Jones 

James  Cheney 

278 

$25 

$10 

#35 

12.59 

Geo.  Mgrsh 

Peter  Johnson 

29<H 

2O 

10 

3° 

I  O.I  2 

Northfield  Route,  Month  of  December,  1904 


John  Jones 
Geo.  Marsh 

James  Cheney 
Peter  Johnson 

222 

3i6* 

$12 
15 

$10 
10 

$22 
2? 

9.99 
7.89 

Horse  labor  as  well  as  man  labor  should  be  charged  against  the 
enterprise  for  which  it  is  used.     The  rate  at  which  it  should  be  charged 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  405 

may  be  ascertained  by  adding  the  cost  of  feed,  shoeing,  and  labor  cost 
of  care,  interest  on  the  money  invested  and  depreciation,  dividing  the 
sum  by  the  number  of  hours  worked  during  the  year  by  each  horse. 
It  is  easily  possible  to  keep  more  horses  than  the  labor  of  the  farm 
requires,  resulting  in  an  item  of  loss  to  the  farm.  With  horse  labor 
also  it  is  important  that  the  farm  operations  be  so  arranged  that  a  min- 
imum amount  of  work  will  be  uniformly  in  demand  through  the  year. 
Many  farmers  barely  make  farm  wages  for  themselves  after  paying 
interest  on  the  capital  invested.  Whether  wages  for  labor  are  high  or 
low  makes  little  difference  with  the  farm  labor  problem.  Unless  the 
manager  is  able  to  use  the  labor  employed  to  as  good  advantage  as  his 
competitors,  or  even  better,  there  will  be  but  little  profit  in  employ- 
ing it. 

FARM  PLANNING 

The  cost  of  operating  a  farm  can  often  be  greatly 
reduced  by  a  careful  arrangement  of  the  fields  and 
farmstead. 

The  farmstead  being  the  center  of  activity  should 
be  so  located  as  to  give  easy  and  direct  access  to  all  of 
the  fields.  It  is  a  point  of  economy,  though  not  often 
practiced,  to  have  each  field  border  directly  on  the  farm- 
stead so  that  men  and  teams  can  begin  work  at  once 
upon  leaving  the  barns  instead  of  driving  80  to  160 
rods  before  entering  the  field.  The  amount  of  travel 
saved  in  this  way  is  surprising  to  one  who  has  not  cal- 
culated the  difference.  The  arrangement  of  the  fields 
themselves  as  to  shape  and  size  is  another  feature 
which  bears  directly  on  the  convenience  and  economy 
of  operating  the  farm.  A  long  and  comparatively 
narrow  field  is  more  easily  worked  than  a  square  one 
because  less  time  is  lost  in  turning  corners.  A  square 
field,  however,  requires  less  fencing  than  a  long  one. 
These  two  opposing  factors  must,  therefore,  be  adjusted 
and  the  best  plan  decided  upon. 


406 


FARM   MANAGEMENT 


Where  the  topography  of  the  land  will  allow,  it  is 
best  to  divide  the  farm  into  a  number  of  equal  sized 
fields  so  that  a  like  amount  of  the  various  crops  may  be 
grown  each  year,  thus  providing  for  the  constant  em- 
ployment of  labor  and  allowing  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  farm  business.  The  time  lost  in  traveling 
to  and  from  the  fields  must  be  charged  against  the 
earning  power  of  the  field  or  farm.  Thus  a  farm  near 
by  and  well  planned  may  be  worth  $5  an  acre  more 
than  one  of  equal  producing  power,  but  distant  and 
poorly  planned.  As  the  cost  of  operating  is  less,  the 
earning  capacity  is  greater. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  FIELDS  SHOWING  VALUE  OF  A  WELL- 
MADE  FARM  PLAN 

(By  courtesy  of  A.  D.  Wilson) 

The  following  diagrams  illustrate  a  i6o-acre  farm,  all  of  which  is 
tillable,  as  it  was  operated  and  as  it  is  now  being  operated. 


12  A 

ISA 

10  A 

15 
A 

21  A 

27  A 

20  A 

27  A 

Farm- 
stead 
10  A 

30  A 

30  A 

30  A 

30  A 

30  A 

Farm- 
stead 
10  A 

FIG.  236. 
As  it  is  now  operated  : 


FIG.  235. 

As  it  was  operated  : 

Total  fencing  .      .      .      892  rods  Total  fencing  .      .      .      640  rods 

Average  distance  from  Average  distance  from 

farmstead  to  farmstead  to  fields    .        24  rods 

fields      ....    69.9  rods  Difference  in  fencing  re- 
quired   .      .      .      .      252  rods 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  407 

To  raise  corn  on  30  acres  the  greatest  distance  from  farmstead 
will  require : 

Manuring 240  trips 

Plowing 20  trips 

Harrowing 9  trips 

Disking 8  trips 

Planting 6  trips 

Cultivating 40  trips 

Husking 30  trips 

•  Total 353  trips 

If  each  trip  is  172  rods,  353  trips  will  make  190  miles,  additional 
travel.  Equal  to  $19  cash  in  time  consumed. 

Note.  —  Fencing.  Ten  acres  of  land  contains  1 600  square  rods. 
In  a  square  field  160  rods  of  fencing  would  be  required  to  inclose  it, 
but  such  a  field  would  be  expensive  to  work  on  account  of  the  large 
amount  of  turning  necessary.  If  the  field  were  made  ioX  1 60  rods, 
340  rods,  or  180  rods  additional,  fence  would  be  required.  The  de- 
preciation of  this  amount  of  additional  fence  and  the  cost  of  keeping  up 
the  fence  would  indicate  that  a  compromise  between  these  two,  ex- 
tremes would  be  wise.  A  field  20X^0  rods  would  be  the  medium. 

A  well-arranged  farmstead  is  also  instrumental  in  greatly  reducing 
the  cost  of  operating  the  farm.  When  the  number  of  trips  and  the 
time  consumed  is  calculated,  one  realizes  the  importance  of  well- 
arranged  buildings  and  yards.  On  most  farms  1095  trips  will  be 
made  yearly  between  the  feed  barns  and  the  swine  pens.  If  the  pens 
are  5  rods  farther  from  the  barns  than  is  necessary,  10,950  rods,  or 
34.2  miles,  of  unnecessary  travel  will  be  entailed.  The  saving  of  time 
that  may  be  made  in  connection  with  doing  the  chores  on  a  modern 
diversified  farm  is  large  and  becomes  an  important  factor  in  the  net 
earnings  of  the  business. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SOIL 

Part  of  the  business  of  the  farm  manager  consists 
in  preserving  the  fertility  of  the  land  and  in  improving 
the  condition  of  the  soil  as  far  as  possible.  Fertility 


408  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

is  often  lost  and  land  rendered  less  valuable  through 
erosion  of  the  soil.  On  rough,  hilly  land  and  in  light 
soils  the  loss  from  this  source  often  becomes  serious. 
The  valuable  surface  soil  is  washed  into  the  ravines 
and  valleys,  the  fields  become  gullied  and  difficult  to 
work,  and  are  consequently  unproductive.  Erosion 
can  be  prevented  to  a  large  extent  by  keeping  the  land 
in  grass  a  good  portion  of  the  time,  thus  rilling  the  soil 
with  roots,  by  the  addition  of  manures,  and  by  plowing, 
planting,  and  cultivating  across  the  face  of  the  hills 
instead  of  up  and  down  the  hills. 

CROP  ROTATION 

The  proper  rotation  of  crops  is  regarded  as  essential 
in  keeping  up  the  producing  power  of  the  soil.  It  also 
becomes  an  important  factor  in  the  profit  from  farming 
because  of  its  bearing  on  the  farm  labor  and  on  the 
constant  employment  of  capital  as  well  as  upon  the 
fertility  of  the  fields.  Farm  crops  are  divided  roughly 
into  three  classes  so  far  as  their  effect  on  the  soil  is 
concerned.  These  classes  are:  (i)  grain  crops,  in- 
cluding all  of  the  cereals  grown  for  the  grain  they 
produce;  (2)  grass  crops,  including  all  of  the  crops 
usually  grown  for  pasture  or  hay;  and  (3)  the  culti- 
vated crops  in  which  are  included  corn,  potatoes,  root 
crops,  and  any  others  which  are  so  grown  as  tc  call  for 
intertillage. 

The  grain  crops  are  practically  neutral  in  regard  to 
the  addition  or  reduction  of  the  amount  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter,  or  humus,  in  the  soil  and  may  be 
grown  continuously  for  a  few  years  without  appar- 
ently affecting  soil  productivity.  Long-continued  grain 
cropping,  however,  results  in  weedy  fields  and  lessened 


FARM   MANAGEMENT 


409 


yields  from  depleted  fertility.  Grass  crops  are  re- 
garded as  humus-building  crops  and  are,  therefore, 
valuable  in  building  up  the  crop-producing  power  of 
the  land,  especially  when  the  grass  crops  are  fed  on  the 
farm  and  the  manure  is  hauled  on  the  land.  The  decay- 
ing roots  aid  in  opening  up  the  subsoil,  affording  better 
underdrainage  and  more  free  entrance  of  air.  The  roots 
and  leaves  also  add  to  the  vegetable  matter  of  the  soil. 

Cultivated  crops  are  useful  in  clearing  the  land  from 
weeds,  but  are  destructive  of  humus ;  if  continued  on 
the  same  land  for  a  few  years,  they  will  rapidly  reduce 
the  producing  power  of  the  land. 

The  best  farm  practice  calls  for  the  arrangement  of 
these  three  classes  of  crops  in  a  systematic  scheme  of 
cropping  which  brings  them  in  succession  on  each  field 
of  the  farm. 

Some  of  the  crops  upon  each  farm  are  used  for  feed ; 
others  are  sold  for  cash  and  removed  entirely  from  the 
farm.  The  system  of  farming  which  provides  for  the 
use  of  all  of  the  crops  on  the  farm  as  food,  selling  the 
product  in  the  form  of  live  stock  or  live  stock  products 
is  most  conservative  of  the  fertility  of  the  farm. 

Suggestions  on  Crop  Rotation.  —  A  good  scheme  of  crop  rota- 
tion implies  the  division  of  the  farm  into  a  number  of  fields  of  nearly 
uniform  size.  Ordinarily,  there  should  be  a  field  for  each  year  in  the 
rotation,  that  is,  a  three-year  rotation  will  be  best  followed  if  the  farm 
is  divided  into  three  fields,  or  a  five-year  rotation  if  the  farm  is  divided 
into  five  fields.  Such  a  division  of  the  farm  distributes  the  crops  each 
year  and  makes  uniform  the  labor  required  and  the  product  received. 
Consequently,  the  labor  can  be  adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the  business. 

If  live  stock  is  kept,  the  cropping  system  can  be  so  arranged  as  to 
lessen  the  work  in  summer  and  increase  it  in  the  winter  when  farm 
labor  is  comparatively  cheap,  thus  increasing  the  profit.  No  scheme 


4io 


FARM   MANAGEMENT 


of  rotation  can  be  given  that  will  apply  to  all  farms,  as  the  crops  must 
be  adapted  to  the  soil,  climate,  markets,  and  local  conditions  in  each 
instance. 


1904  -  FODDER  4  SEED  CORN 
08  •  BARLEY 
08  -  OATS 
07-  WHEAT  (SEEDED) 
08  -  GRASS 
09  -  GRASS 
D                                                                                             20  A. 

1904  -BARLEY 
05  -  OATS 
06  -WHEAT  (SEEDED) 
07  -GRASS 
08  -  GRASS 
09-  FODDER  &  SEED  CORN 
E 

20  A. 

1904-  GRASS 
05  -  FODDER  &  SEED  CORN 
06  -  BARLEY 
07  -  OATS 
O8-  WHEAT  (SEEDED) 
09  -  GRASS 
,     C                                                                                             20  A. 

1904  -OATS 
05  -WHEAT  (SEEDED) 
06  -  GRASS 
07  -  GRASS 
08  -  FODDER  4  SEED  CORN 
03  -  BARLEY 
F 

20  A. 

1904  -  GRASS 
05  -  GRASS 
06  •  FODDER  4.  SEED  CORN 
07  -  BARLEY 
08  -  OATS 
09  -WHEAT  (SEEDED) 
B                                                                                            20  A. 

'04-ROOTS  4  FODDER  CORN  '04-OAT  HAY 
05-OAT  HAY                               05-FODDER  CORN  4  ROOTS 
06-PASTURE                              06-ROOTS  4  FODDER  CORN 
07-PASTURE                               07-OAT  HAY 
08-OAT  HAY                               08-PASTURE 
09-FODDER  CORN  4  ROOTS  09-PASTURE 

G                                      10  A.      1                                        10  A. 

1904  -WHEAT  (SEEDED) 

06  -  GRASS 
06  -  GRASS 
07  -  FODDER  4  SEED  CORN 
08  -  BARLEY 
09  -  OATS 

A                                                                                              20  A. 

jgmmm 

'04-PASTURE                               3f              _          _ 
05-PASTURE                               f    """I          1 

y«HDS 

07-FODDER  CORN  4  ROOTS  ^HEN^tOUSE 
08-ROOTS  4  FODDER  CORN   ^    HOUSED     • 
09-OAT  HAY                               £|  p 

H            10  A.  !H°*N  I 

GARDEN 

FIG.  237. — Plan  of  Farm  arranged  for  a  Six-year  Major  Rotation  and  a  Six-year 
Minor  Rotation  adapted  to  Three  Small  Fields. 

Cost  of  Production.  —  The  cost  of  production  of  each  crop  in  tht 
rotation  should  be  considered  in  all  cases  where  figures  are  available. 
The  Bureau  of  Statistics,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  has 
published  two  bulletins,  Numbers  48  and  73,  which  give  valuable 
figures  on  this  subject,  gained  from  an  extensive  study  of  farm  opera- 
tions in  Minnesota  made  in  cooperation  with  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station. 


FARM   MANAGEMENT  411 

COST  AN  ACRE  OF  CORN  PRODUCTION 

Seed $.226 

Shelling  seed .026 

Plowing 1.31  i 

Dragging 544 

Planting.  .  .240 

Cultivating 1. 806 

Husking 3-45^ 

Machinery  cost -549 

Land  rent 3-5°° 

General  expense i  .000 

$12.658 

In  the  above  calculation  land  is  valued  at  $70.00  an  acre,  upon 
which  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent  is  charged.  Man  labor  varied 
from  1 2  cents  to  13.5  cents  an  hour  ;  horse  labor  averaged  9.25  cents  an 
hour,  and  all  horse  and  man  labor  included  are  charged  at  these  rates. 
One  half  the  cost  of  manuring  is  charged  to  the  corn  crop  on  a  some-  : 
what  arbitrary  basis  and  is  included  under  general  expense.  The 
general  expense  of  the  farm,  charged  on  a  pro  rata  basis,  is  about 
$1.00  an  acre,  and  this  figure  is  used  for  the  corn  field. 

ACCOUNTING 

If  a  farm  is  to  be  conducted  as  a  business  enterprise, 
it  follows '  that  some  system  of  accounting  must  be 
adopted  which  will  permit  a  close  analysis  of  each  enter- 
prise conducted. 

An  inventory  should  be  taken  at  the  end  of  each  year 
as  a  basis  of  comparison  of  the  business  for  the  year. 
An  account  should  be  opened  with  each  crop  grown,  as 
wheat,  oats,  corn,  hay,  or  orchard,  also  with  the  various 
classes  of  live  stock,  as  cows,  swine,  sheep,  poultry,  or 
horses,  and  with  all  labor  also,  and  each  enterprise 
charged  with  the  amount  consumed  in  carrying  for- 
ward the  work.  While  it  would  be  possible  to  learn 


412  FARM  MANAGEMENT 

whether  the  farm  as  a  whole  had  been  profitable  by 
charging  all  items  of  expense  against  it  and  crediting 
the  farm  with  all  produce  raised,  such  an  account  would 
be  of  little  value  in  learning  which  lines  or  enterprises 
were  affording  the  profit.  Therefore,  it  is  deemed  nec- 
essary to  open  an  account  with  each  enterprise,  just 
as  a  storekeeper  opens  an  account  with  each  customer. 
Against  each  enterprise  must  be  charged  all  items  of 
expense,  such  as  man  and  team  labor  at  the  cost  of 
furnishing  such  labor,  machinery,  cost,  and  deprecia- 
tion, land  rental,  or  interest,  and  anything  else  that  may 
add  to  the  cost  of  production.  The  enterprise  should 
be  credited  with  all  revenue  arising  from  the  product 
whether  sold  or  used  as  food.  If  used  as  food,  it  should 
be  credited  at  the  market  price  for  such  products  in 
the  neighborhood.  The  difference  between  the  debit 
and  credit  accounts  will  show  whether  the  enterprise 
has  been  profitable.  If  unprofitable  after  a  fair  trial, 
the  methods  should  be  corrected  or  the  enterprise 
dropped  for  a  more  profitable  one. 

The  form  of  accounts  should  be  as  simple  as  possible 
so  as  to  demand  little  time.  A  card  ledger  account 
with  each  enterprise,  upon  which  may  be  entered  di- 
rectly all  charges  or  credits,  will  be  found  convenient 
and  suited  to  most  forms  of  business.  The  balances 
from  the  various  enterprises  show  the  profit  or  loss 
from  each,  and  when  brought  together  on  a  balance 
sheet  show  the  profit  or  loss  from  the  farm  as  a  whole, 


APPENDIX 


WEIGHTS  OF  GRAIN,  SEEDS,  ETC. 

THE  table  given  below  shows  the  weight  of  grain, 
seeds,  etc.,  per  bushel,  as  established  by  the  legisla- 
tures of  the  states  named: 


ARHCLES 

New  York 

_2 

5 

Pennsylvania 

Indiana 

Wisconsin 

« 

o 

o 

B 

Michigan 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

-3 
q 

_r; 

V 

•p 

0 
j: 

a: 

Kentucky 

New  Jersey 

Vermont 

Missouri 

Minnesota 

Wheat  

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

go 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Rve 

56 

-n 

-f\ 

r6 

cfi 

-f", 

56 

5fi 

-i 

56 

56 

-., 

56 

-f, 

-h 

-6 

rv.yc 

-f\ 

56 

jfi 

56 

-h 

56 

56 

56 

5fi 

56 

'-n 

56 

56 

56 

1-6 

-6 

Oats     ..         

H 

18 

^8 

ig 

18 

^8 

(R 

,8 

j8 

,5 

iR 

jg 

l8 

<H 

I9 

r! 

|R 

,  '-• 

,8 

,'-' 

,S 

56 

,8 

60 

6* 

60 

60 

go 

60 

f  o 

60 

6O 

60 

6  A 

60 

60 

Flax  Seed  

0 

r6 

-f, 

eg 

56 

-.', 

J6 

-6 

Blue  Grass  Seed  

M 

14 

14 

„« 

14 

14 

14 

H 

14 

14 

'4 
28 

oR 

28 

28 

-.', 

gl 

^6 

-n 

62 

56 

60 

rf> 

60 

60 

fin 

60 

60 

(So 

60 

60 

f-n 

60 

60 

(So 

60 

Peas  

60 
60 

60 

60 

60 
60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

•  0 

60 
60 

60 
fo 

60 
60 

go 
& 

60 

62 

60 
60 

60 
60 

,h 

\fi 

16 

16 

»6 

46 

18 

Corn  Meal  

5° 

5P 

5° 

48 

50 

5" 

5° 

50 

5° 

PLOWING 


BREADTH  OF  FURROW  SLICE 
Inches 

DISTANCE  TRAVELED  IN 
PLOWING  AN  ACRE 
Miles 

I 

M? 

9 

10 

ii 

ii 
9ft 

9 

13 

ii 

13 

7l 

1! 

i 

18 

19 
20 

1 

413 


414 


APPENDIX 


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o 

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APPENDIX 


415 


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swine 

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fattening  swine 

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Mature  swine 

b 
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416 


APPENDIX 


13    S     5  «  M  B°       N       B°       »        »        M  M  M       O       1H       «' 

fft 

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APPENDIX 


417 


O     <f\    O      O  vO      M 


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::::::::::  ?  5   :::::: 

Clover  Silage  
Alfalfa  Silage  

Hay  and  Straw: 
Timothy  Hay  
Mixed  Grass  and  Cl<n 
Kentucky  Blue  Grass 
Orchard  Grass  Hay  . 
Hungarian  Hay  
Barnyard  Millet  Hay 
Mixed  Grass  Hay  .  .  . 

::::::::;•  u  u    :::::: 
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APPENDIX 


fel 


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APPENDIX 


419 


IP 

u  < 


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=    0^20300 


42O 


APPENDIX 


27 


I,  lanceolate;  2,  spatulate:  3,  oval:  4,  obovate;  5,  reniform:  6,  deltoid:  7,  lyrate;  8,  runct- 
nate;  9,  serrate;  10,  dentate;  n,  crenate:  12,  undulate;  13,  sinuate:  14,  acuminate; 
15,  acute;  16,  obtuse;  17,  truncate;  18,  19,  emarcinate:  20,  obcordate:  21,  cuspidate; 
22,  mucronatc;  23,  cordate;  24,  sagittate;  25,  oblique;  26.  auricled;  27,  hastate. 


APPENDIX 


421 


Diagram  of  Cow. 


Head. 
Muzzle. 


Nostril. 
Face. 


J. 

Eye. 

25- 

Forearm. 

6. 

Forehead. 

26. 

Knee. 

7. 

Horn. 

27. 

Ankle. 

6. 

Ear. 

28. 

Hoof. 

9- 

!•  '. 

Cheek. 
Throat. 

29. 

Heart  girth. 
Side  or  barrel. 

ii. 

Neck. 

31. 

Belly. 

18. 

Withers. 

32. 

Flank. 

13. 

Back. 

33- 

Milk  vein. 

M 

Loins. 

34- 

Fore  udder. 

«s 

Hip  bone. 

35- 

Hind  udder. 

16. 

Pelvic  arch. 

36. 

Teats. 

*?• 

Rump. 

37- 

Upper  thigh. 

1  8 

Tail. 

38. 

Stifle. 

19. 

Switch. 

39- 

Twist. 

ao, 

Chest. 

40 

Leg  or  gaskin 

ai. 

Brisket. 

Hock. 

22 

Dewlap. 

42- 

Shank. 

83. 

Shoulder. 

43- 

Dew  claw. 

24. 

Elbow. 

1.  Head. 

2.  Face. 

3.  Muzzle. 

4.  Nostril. 
5    Eye. 

6.  Ear. 

7.  Cheek. 

8.  Neck. 

9    Withers. 
10.   Throat, 
n.   Back. 

12.  Loins. 

13.  Angle  of  ilium. 

14.  Rump. 

15.  Tail  or  Dock. 


16.  Chest. 

17.  Shoulder. 

18.  Elbow. 

19.  Forearm. 

20.  Knee. 

21.  Ankle. 

22.  Claw. 

23    Girth  measure. 

24.  Side  or  barrel. 

25.  Belly. 

26.  Flank. 

27.  Hip  joint. 

28.  Stifle  joint. 

29.  Hock  joint. 


^¥b^~  '     r  r    » 


Zl 

Diagram  of  Sheep. 


Diagram  of  Horse. 


0. 

Poll  or  nape  of 

19.  Coronet. 

the  neck. 

20.  Foot. 

I. 

Neck. 

21.  Xiphoid 

i', 

Jugular  gutter. 

region. 

2. 

Withers. 

22.  Ribs. 

3. 

Back. 

23.  Abdomen. 

4- 

Loins. 

24.  Flank. 

5. 

Croup. 

25.  Sheath. 

6. 

Tail. 

26.  Testicles. 

7- 

Parotid  region. 

27.  Buttock. 

8. 

Throat. 

27  bis.  Angle 

9, 

Shoulder. 

of  buttock. 

HI. 

Point     of     the 

28.  Thigh. 

shoulder. 

28  bis.  Haunch. 

II. 

Arm. 

29.  Stifle. 

12. 

Elbow. 

30.   Leg. 

I3- 

Forearm. 

31.   Hock. 

14 

Chestnut. 

32.  Chestnut. 

IS 

Knee. 

33.  Canon. 

16 

Canon. 

34.   Fetlock. 

17. 

Fetlock. 

35.   Pastern. 

18. 

Pastern. 

36.  Coronet. 

422 


APPENDIX 


1.  Comb. 

2.  Face. 

3.  Wattles. 

4.  Ear  lobes. 

5.  Hackle. 

6.  Breast. 

7.  Back. 

8.  Saddle. 

9.  Saddle 

feathers. 
10.  Sickles. 
n.  Tail  coverts. 

12.  Main  tail 

feathers. 

13.  Wing  bow. 


14.  Wing  coverts, 

forming     wing 
bar. 

15.  Secondaries, 

wing  bay. 

16.  Primaries    or 

flight  feathers; 
wing  buts. 

17.  Point    of    breast 

bone. 

18.  Thighs. 

19.  Hocks. 

20    Shanks  or  legs. 

21.  Spur. 

21.  Toes  or  claws. 


Diagram  of  Chicken. 

ELEMENTS  AND  INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS 


NAME 

SYMBOL 

ATOMIC 
WEIGHTS 

N\ME 

SYMBOL 

ATOMIC 
WEIGHTS 

Al 
Sb 
A 
As 
Ba 
Bel 

£" 

B 
Br 

Cd 
Cs 
Ca 
C 
Ce 
Cl 
Cr 
Co 
Cbl 
NbJ 
Cu 

£y 

Er 
Eu 
F 
Gd 
Ga 
Ge 
Au 
He 
H 
In 
I 
Ir 
Fe 
Kr 
La 
Pb 

Lu 
Mg 
Mn 

O=i6 

27.1 

120.2 
39-9 
74-96 
137-37 

9-1 
208.0 

II.O 

79.92 
112.40 
132-81 
40.09 

12.0 
140.25 
35-46 
S2-0 
58-97 

93  -S 

63-S7 
162.5 
167.4 
152.0 
19.0 
157-3 
69.9 
72-5 
197-2 
4.0 
1.008 
114.8 
126.92 
I93-I 
55-85 
83-0 
139.0 
207.10 
7.0 
174-0 
24-32 

'Jd.O? 

Hg 

Mo 
Nd 
Ne 
Ni 
N 
Os 
0 
Pd 
P 
Pt 
K 
Pr 
Ra 
Rh 
Rb 
Ru 
Sa 
Sc 
Se 
Si 
Ag 
Na 
Sr 
S 
Ta 
Te 
Tb 
Tl 
Th 
Tm 
Sn 
Ti 
W 
U 
V 
Xe 

Yb 
Y 
Zn 
Zr 

O  =  i6 

200  .0 
96.0 

144-3 
20  .0 
58.68 
14.01 
190.9 
1  6.0 
106.7 
31-0 
195-0 
39-10 
140.6 
226.4 
102.9 
85-45 
101.7 
150.4 
44.1 
79-2 
28.3 
107.88 
23.0 
87.62 
32-07 
181.0 
127-5 
159-2 
204.0 
232-42 
168.5 
119.0 
48.1 
184.0 
238.5 
Si.2 

130.7 

172.0 
89.0 
65-37 

00.6 

Molybdenum    .... 
Neodymium      .... 

Nickel 

Beryllium  or     .... 

Bismuth  

Oxygen     

Caesium    

Potassium     
Praseodymium       .    .    . 

Cobalt      

Samarium     

or  Niobium    .... 

Silicon       

Dysprosium      .... 

Silver   . 

Tantalum      
Tellurium     

Germanium  .     .         .    . 
Gold 

Tin 

Vanadium     

Lead          

Ytterbium      (Neoytter- 

Yttrium    

Manirancst    . 

Zirconium 

INDEX 


Aberdeen  Angus,  327. 
Absolute  alcohol,  42. 
Accounts,  411. 
Acetic  ferment,  41. 
Acetic  fermentation,  43. 
Acid,  22. 

hydrochloric,  62. 

nitric,  22. 

reverted  phosphoric,  48. 

sodium  carbonate,  64. 

sulphuric,  58. 
Acidity  of  soil,  116. 
Acuminate,  420. 
Acute,  420. 

Adventitious  buds,  134. 
Adventitious  roots,  121. 
Aeration,  76. 
Affinity,  chemical,  n. 
African  goose,  377. 
Albumin,  27. 
Alcohol,  absolute,  42. 

denatured,  44. 

ethyl,  40. 

methyl,  40. 

wood,  44. 
Alderney,  333. 
Alfalfa,  226,  230. 

inoculation  of,  231. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Alkali,  24,  91. 
Alkaloids,  28. 
Alluvial  soil,  70. 
Alsike  clover,  226. 

nutrients  in,  417. 
Alumina,  65. 
Aluminium,  65. 
Aluminium  oxide,  65. 
Ammonia,  23. 
Ammonia  sulphate,  no. 
Andalusians,  369. 
Angiosperms,  170. 


Annuals,  145. 
Anther,  145. 
Apatite,  47. 
Apex,  138. 

varieties  of,  420. 
Apple,  251. 
Aqua  fortis,  22. 
Aqua  regia,  62. 
Army  worm,  314. 
Ash,  380. 

Asiatic  breeds  of  fowls,  367. 
Aster  family,  179. 
Atom,  10. 
Auricled,  420. 
Aylesbury,  375. 
Ayrshire,  335. 

Babcock  test,  342. 
Bacteria,  76,  114,  266. 
Baking  powder,  64. 
Baking  soda,  64. 
Balanced  ration,  386. 
Bark,  136. 
Barley,  207. 

weight  of,  413. 
Barley  fodder,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Base,  24,  138. 

varieties  of,  420. 
Beans,  241. 

weight  of,  413. 
Bedbug,  305. 
Beef,  cuts  of,  330. 
Bees,  315. 
Beetles,  297. 
Beets,  216,  238. 
Belgian,  345. 
Bergamot-mint,  223. 
Berkshire,  361. 
Bermuda  grass,  226. 
Bermuda  onions,  240. 
Berries,  257. 
423 


424 


INDEX 


Bicarbonate  of  soda,  64. 
Biennials,  145. 
Birds,  322. 
Blackberries,  259. 
black  Cayuga,  375. 
Blade,  138. 

Bleaching  powder,  62. 
Blight  of  potatoes,  276. 
Blue  grass,  171. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Blue-grass  seed,  weight  of,  413. 
Blue  vitriol,  61. 
Boll  weevil,  219. 
Bone  meal,  46. 
Borax,  64. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  61,  278. 
Botany,  118. 
Botfly,  311. 
Brahmas,  369. 
Branching  of  roots,  129. 
Breeding,  plant,  165. 
Brimstone,  56. 
Broncho,  349. 
Broom  corn,  215. 
Brown  Swiss,  329. 
Bryophytes,  171. 
Buckwheat,  210. 

weight  of,  413. 
Buds,  133. 
Buffalo  beetle,  299. 
Bulblets,  135. 
Bulbs,  134,  155. 
Butter-fat  records,  336. 
Butterine,  39. 
Butyrin,  39. 
By-products  of  beef,  330. 

Cabbage,  241. 
Cabbage  worm,  314. 
Calcium,  52. 
Calcium  carbonate,  52. 
Calcium  hydroxide,  54. 
Calcium  oxide,  53. 
Calcium  phosphate,  46. 
Calcium  sulphate,  55. 
Calyx,  145. 
Cambium  layer,  136. 
Campbell  system,  96. 
Canada  thistle,  131. 
Capillarity,  72. 
Carbohydrates,  34,  381. 
in  rations,  414. 


Carbon,  28. 
Carbonate,  calcium,  52. 

potassium,  50. 

sodium,  64. 

Carbon  dioxide,  30,  142. 
Carbon  disulphide,  58. 
Carbon  monoxide,  33. 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  31. 
Carriage  horse,  346. 
Carrots,  237. 
Casein,  27,  341. 
Castor  beans,  weight  of,  41 
Castor  oil,  218. 
Cattle,  324. 

feeding  of,  388. 

rations  of,  414. 
Caustic  potash,  51. 
Cell  sap,  123. 
Cellulose,  36. 
Cement,  54. 
Centgener  plots,  169. 
Cereals,  182. 
Charcoal,  29. 
Chemical  affinity,  n. 
Chemical  change,  n. 
Chemical  equations,  13. 
Cherry,  254. 
Chester  White,  361. 
Cheviot,  356. 
Chickasaw  plum,  254. 
Chile  saltpeter,  63. 
Chinch  bug,  305. 
Chloride,  potassium,  49. 

sodium,  63. 
Chloride  of  lime,  62. 
Chlorine,  61. 
Chlorophyll,  60,  140. 
Cholera,  hog,  360. 
Cider  vinegar,  44. 
Citrous  fruits,  254. 
Cleft  grafting,  161. 
Cleveland  Bay,  348. 
Clover,  230. 

crimson,  232. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Clover  seed,  weight  of,  413. 
Clydesdale,  344. 
Cochins,  370. 
Cockroaches,  296. 
Codling  moth,  312. 
Cold  frame,  156. 
Composite,  179. 


INDEX 


425 


Composition  of  milk,  340. 
Compounds,  9. 
Conservation  of  fertility,  100. 

of  water,  74. 
Copperas,  60. 
Copper  hydroxide,  61. 
Copper  sulphate,  61. 
Cordate,  420. 
Corm,  155. 
Corn,  190. 

Jerusalem,  215. 

Kaffir,  215. 

weight  of,  413. 
Corn  meal,  weight  of,  413. 
Corn  products,  198. 
Cornish  Indian,  374. 
Corolla,  145. 
Cotswold,  353,  357. 
Cotton,  218. 
Cotton  moth,  314. 
Cottonseed  oil,  218. 
Cow,  324. 

diagram  of,  421. 

rations  of,  414. 

value  of,  338. 
Cowpeas,  230. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Crayon,  56. 
Cream,  341. 
Cream  of  tartar,  64. 
Crenate,  420. 
Crimson  clover,  232. 
Crop  rotation,  408. 
Crops,  in  orchards,  247. 

time  to  mature,  418. 
Cross,  147. 

Cross-pollination,  147. 
Cruciferae,  173. 
Cryptogams,  170. 
Crystallization,  water  of,  55. 
Cucurbitacx,  181. 
Culm,  171. 
Cultivation,  75. 
Curculio,  301. 
Currant  worm,  315. 
Currants,  259. 
Cuspidate,  420. 
Cuts  of  beef,  330. 
Cuttings,  155,  158. 

Dairy  products,  339. 
Dairy  type,  331. 


Damping-off,  280. 

Dehorning,  52. 

Delaine,  354. 

Deltoid,  420. 

Denatured  alcohol,  44. 

Denitrification,  115. 

Dentate,  420. 

Devon,  329. 

Dextrin,  37. 

Dextrose,  34. 

Diagrams  of  farm  animals,  421. 

Diamonds,  29. 

Diastases,  41. 

Dicotyledons,  170. 

Digestibility,  382. 

Dioecious,  147. 

Dirt  mulch,  74. 

Diseases,  plant,  263,  272. 

poultry,  365. 
Distillation,  41. 
Distributor,  204. 
Doddies,  327. 
Dolomite,  56. 
Dominiques,  367. 
Dorkings,  373. 
Dragon  flies,  296. 
Drainage,  86. 
Drift  soil,  70. 
Dry  farming,  95. 
Dual  purpose  cows,  324. 
Ducks,  374. 
Durham,  325. 
Duroc  Jersey,  361. 
Durra,  215. 

Durum  wheats,  186,  291. 
Dust  mulch,  74. 
Dutch  Belted  cattle,  335. 

Egg  breeds,  366. 
Elements,  9,  422. 
Elements  of  plants,  99. 
Emarginate,  420. 
Fmbden,  377. 
Embryo,  145. 
Emery,  65. 
Emmer,  186. 
Emulsion,  kerosene,  303. 
Endogenous  stem,  135. 
Endogens,  136,  170. 
English  Hackney,  347. 
Ensilage,  198. 
Enzymes,  40,  41,  43. 


426 


INDEX 


Epidermis,  139. 
Epsom  salts,  56. 
Equations,  chemical,  13. 
Ether  extract,  39,  382. 
Ethyl  alcohol,  40. 
Exogenous  stem,  135. 
Exogens,  136;  170. 
Extract,  ether,  39. 
nitrogen  free,  37. 
Eyes,  potato,  131. 

Farm  investments,  400. 
Farm  labor,  403. 
Farm  management,  398. 
Farm  planning,  405. 
Fats,  38,  382. 

in  rations,  414. 
Faverolle,  370. 
Feeding,  scientific,  385. 

cattle,  388. 

horses,  393. 

poultry,  394. 

sheep,  392. 

standards,  414. 

swine,  390. 
Feldspar,  65. 
Ferment,  acetic,  41. 

lactic,  41. 

soluble,  41. 

Fermentation,  acetic,  43. 
Fern  plants,  169. 
Ferrous  sulphate,  60. 
Fertility,  conservation  of,  100. 

loss  of,  98. 

soil,  98. 

Fertilization,  146. 
Fertilizers,  100. 

amount  of,  no. 

application  of,  112. 

classes  of,  105. 

commercial,  no. 

mixing,  112. 

Fertilizing  constituents,  416. 
Fiber  plants,  218. 
Fibrin,  27. 
Field  pea,  232. 
Filament,  145. 
Flax,  221. 

Flaxseed,  weight  of,  413. 
Flax  wilt,  283. 
Fleas,  310. 
Flies,  305. 


Floats,  48. 
Flooding,  92. 
Flour  of  sulphur,  56. 
Flower  bud,  133,  148 
Fodders,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Food,  plant,  142. 
Food  components,  381. 
Fool's  gold,  57. 
French  Canadian  cattle,  336. 
French  Coach,  348. 
Fruits,  242. 
Fungi,  264,  267. 
Fungous  diseases,  264. 
Fungus,  264,  267. 
Furrowing,  93. 
Fusel  oil,  42. 

Galloway,  328. 

Geese,  376. 

General  purpose  breeds,  367. 

German  Coach,  348. 

Germinating  test,  151. 

Girdling,  144. 

Glass,  66. 

water,  66. 
Gliadin,  27. 
Glucose,  34,  36. 
Glumes,  172. 
Gluten,  27. 
Glutenin,  27. 
Glycerin,  38. 
Gooseberries,  259. 
Grafting,  159. 

cleft,  161. 

Grains,  weights  of,  413. 
Gramineae,  171. 
Granulated  sugar,  35. 
Grape,  259. 
Grape  sugar,  34. 
Grapefruit,  256. 
Graphite,  29. 
Grass,  Bermuda,  226. 

Johnson,  226. 

June,  171. 
Grass  crop,  224. 
Grass  family,  171. 
Green  vitriol,  60. 
Ground  water,  72. 
Guard  cells,  140. 
Guernsey,  333. 
Gums,  37. 
Gun  cotton,  22. 


INDEX 


427 


Gunpowder,  51. 
Gymnosperms,  170. 
Gypsum,  55,  117. 

Hairs,  root,  122. 

Hamburgs,  369. 

Hampshire,  355. 

Hard  soap,  39. 

Harrow,  84. 

Hastate,  420. 

Hay,  nutrients  in,  416. 

Header,  190. 

Hematite,  60. 

Hemp,  222. 

Hemp  seed,  weight  of,  413. 

Herefords,  326. 

Hessian  fly,  308. 

Hog  cholera,  360. 

Holstein-Friesians,  334. 

Horned  Dorset,  356. 

Horse,  343. 

diagram  of,  421. 

feeding  of,  393. 

rations  of,  414. 

training  of,  351. 
Horse-mane  oats,  206. 
Hotbed,  157. 
Houdans,  373. 
Housing  poultry,  364. 
Humus,  32,  69. 

Hungarian  grass,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Hybrid,  147. 
Hydrocarbons,  33. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  62. 
Hydrogen,  18. 
Hydrogen  sulphide,  57. 
Hydroxide,  calcium,  54. 

of  copper,  61. 

potassium,  51. 

sodium,  64. 
Hypha,  268. 

Ichneumon  flies,  319. 
Iodine  test,  38. 
Imperfect  flower,  147. 
Impurities  in  seed,  152. 
Incubators,  364. 
Indian  Runner,  376. 
Inoculation  of  alfalfa,  231. 
Insects,  294. 

Intercellular  spaces,  140. 
Internode,  132. 


Investments,  farm,  400. 
Iron,  59. 

sulphate  of,  60. 
Iron  oxides,  60. 
Iron  pyrites,  56. 
Irrigation,  90. 

Javas,  373. 
Jersey,  332. 
Jerusalem  corn,  215. 
Johnson  grass,  226. 
June  grass,  171. 

Kaffir  corn,  215. 

Kainit,  51. 

Kalium,  49. 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  171,  226. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  303. 
Kerry,  335. 

Labor,  farm,  403. 
Lactic  ferment,  41. 
Lactose,  35. 
Lanceolate,  420. 
Langshans,  370. 
Land  plaster,  55. 
Latent  buds,  134. 
Lateral  bud,  133. 
Layering,  158. 
Leaching,  108. 
Leaf  bud,  133. 
Leaf  vegetable,  241. 
Leaves,  137. 

functions  of,  141. 

outlines  of,  420. 
Leghorns,  367. 
Legumes,  113,  230,  232. 
Leguminosae,  174. 
Leicesters,  358. 
Lemon,  256. 
Lime,  53. 

air-slaked,  54. 

caustic,  54. 

chloride  of,  62. 
Limestone,  dolomitic,  56. 
Lime-sulphur  wash,  304 
Lincolns,  357. 
Linseed  meal,  222. 
Linseed  oil,  218. 
Litmus  paper,  23. 
Loaf  sugar,  35. 


428 


INDEX 


Loam,  6g. 

LoCUStS,  2QS. 

Lye,  concentrated,  6S 
Lyrate,  420. 

Magnesium,  55. 
Magnesium  carbonate,  56. 
Magnesium  sulphate,  56. 
Magnetite,  60. 
Maintenance  ration,  383. 
Mangel-wurzel,  238. 
Manure,  amount  of,  106,  418. 

animal,  106. 

application  of,  108. 

care  of,  108. 

economy  of,  no. 

green,  105. 
Maple  sugar,  35. 
Matches,  45. 
Mealy  bug,  304. 
Meat  breeds  of  poultry,  366. 
Mediterranean  breeds,  366. 
Melons,  261. 
Merinos,  353. 
Metamorphosis,  204. 
Methyl  alcohol,  40. 
Midrib,  138. 
Milk  yield,  339. 

composition  of,  340. 
Millet,  226,  228. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Milo  maize,  215. 
Minorcas,  368. 
Mints,  223. 
Mites,  320. 

Mixing  fertilizers,  112. 
Mixtures,  10. 
Moisture,  71. 
Molasses,  35. 
Molecules,  10. 
Monocotyledons,  170. 
Monoecious,  147. 
Moraines,  71. 
Mortar,  54. 
Mosquito,  308. 
Moss  plants,  i6g 
Mother  of  vinegar,  43. 
Mucronate,  420. 
Mulch,  dirt,  74. 

dust,  74. 
Mule,  349. 
Muriate  of  potassium,  49. 


Muscovy,  376. 
Mustard  family,  173. 
Mycelium,  268. 

Netted-veined  leaves,  138. 
Nightshade  family,  178. 
Nitrate,  potassium,  50. 

sodium,  63. 
Nitric  acid,  22. 
Nitrification,  114. 
Nitrogen,  20,  113. 
Nitrogen  free  extract,  37. 
Nitroglycerin,  22. 
Node,  132. 
Nucleus,  124. 
Nutrients  in  food,  416. 
Nutritive  ratio,  386,  414. 
Nuts,  242. 

Oat  fodder,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Oats,  205. 

weight  of,  413. 
Obcordate,  420. 
Oblique,  420. 
Obovate,  420. 
Obtuse,  420. 
Oil,  38. 

castor,  218. 

cottonseed,  218. 

fusel,  42. 

linseed,  218. 

olive,  218. 
Oil  cake,  221. 
Oil  plants,  218. 
Olein,  39. 
Oleomargarine,  39. 
Olive  oil,  218. 
Onions,  239. 

weight  of,  413. 
Orange,  255. 

Orchard  grass,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Orchards,  243. 
Orpingtons,  372. 
Osmosis,  124. 
OvaJ,  420. 
Ovary,  146. 
Ovules,  146. 
Ox  warbles,  311. 
Oxen,  rations  of,  414. 
Oxford,  355. 
Oxygen,  14. 
Ozone,  1 8. 


INDEX 


429 


Pales,  172. 
Palmatin,  38. 
Paper,  36. 
Parasites,  266. 
Parsley  family,  178. 
Parsnips,  237. 
Pasturage,  387. 
Pea,  241. 

family,  174. 
Peach,  252. 
Pear,  252. 

Pea  seed,  weight  of,  413. 
Pekin,  375. 
Peppermint,  223. 
Percherons,  344. 
Perennials,  145. 
Perfect  flower,  147. 
Petiole,  138. 
Phanerogams,  170. 
Phosphate,  calcium,  46. 
Phosphates,  45. 
Phosphoric  acid,  48. 
Phosphorus,  44. 
Physical  change,  n. 
Pistil,  145. 
Pistillate,  147. 
Pith,  136. 

Plant,  parts  of,  118. 
Plant  breeding,  165. 
Plant  food,  142. 
Plant  lice,  302. 
Planting  seed,  153. 

table  for,  418. 
Plaster;  55. 
Plaster  of  Paris,  55. 
Plow,  77. 
Plowing,  depth  of  81. 

distance  traveled  in,  413. 
Plum,  253. 
Plumbago,  29. 
Plymouth  Rock,  371. 
Poland  China,  360. 
Polled  Angus,  327. 
Pollen,  145. 
Pollination,  146. 
Pomelo,  257. 
Potash,  50. 
Potassium,  49. 
Potassium  carbonate,  50. 
Potassium  chloride,  49. 
Potassium  hydroxide,  51. 
Potassium  nitrate,  50. 


Potassium  sulphate,  51. 
Potato  blight,  276. 
Potato  bug,  298. 
Potato  scab,  283. 
Potatoes,  232,  256. 

weight  of,  413. 
Poultry,  363. 

diseases  of,  365. 

feeding,  394. 

housing,  364. 

rations  of,  414. 
Powder,  baking,  64. 
Pressure,  root,  126. 
Principles,  active,  28. 
Product  ration,  384. 
Proof  spirits,  42. 
Propagation,  artificial,  155. 

plant,  150. 

seed,  150. 
Protein^  3-3,  26,  381. 

in  rations,  414. 
Protoplasm,  123. 
Pruning,  130,  248. 
Pteridophytes,  171. 
Pure  milk,  340. 
Pyrites,  iron,  56. 

Quack  grass,  226. 
Quartz,  66. 
Quicklime,  53,  117. 
Quince,  252. 

Raceme,  173. 
Radical,  25. 
Rambouillet,  354. 
Rape,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Raspberries,  259. 
Ration,  balanced,  386. 
Red  clover,  226,  229. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Red  Poll,  328. 
Redtop,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Reniform,  420. 
Rennet,  27. 
Reservoirs,  97. 
Rhode  Island  Red,  372. 
Ribs,  138. 
Rice,  211. 
Ring  budding,  165. 
Ringing,  158. 
Root,  119. 
Root  cap,  128. 


43° 


INDEX 


Root  cuttings,  158. 
Root  hairs,  123. 
Root  pressure,  126. 
Rootage,  systems  of,  127. 
Roots,  236. 

adventitious,  121. 

branching  of,  1 2g. 

fibrous,  122. 

parasitic,  122. 

primary,  121. 
Rootstalk,  132,  154. 
Rosaceae,  174. 
Rose  family,  174. 
Rouen,  375. 
Runciate,  420. 
Russian  brome  grass,  226. 
Rusting  prevented,  60. 
Rusts,  283. 
Rutabagas,  237. 
Rye,  209. 

weight  of,  413. 
Rye  fodder,  nutrients  in,  416. 

Sagittate,  420. 
Sal  soda,  64. 
Salt,  common,  63. 

weight  of,  413. 
Saltpeter,  50. 

Chile,  63. 
Salts,  25. 

Epsom,  56. 
San  Jose  scale,  303. 
Sap,  cell,  124. 
Saponification,  39. 
Saprophytes,  267. 
Scales,  303. 
Scientific  feeding,  385. 
Scion,  159. 
Scotch  cattle,  326. 
Scrubs,  325. 
Sedentary  soil,  69. 
Seed,  amount  of,  418. 

impurities  in,  152. 
Seed  planting,  153. 

date  of,  418. 
Seed  plants,  170. 
Seed  vegetables,  241. 
Seeds,  weights  of,  413. 
Sepals,  145. 
Serrate,  420. 
Sheep,  351. 

diagram  of,  421. 


feeding,  392. 

rations  of,  414. 
Shetland  ponies,  349. 
Shire,  345. 
Shorthorn,  325. 
Shropshire,  355. 
Silage,  198. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Silica,  66. 
Silicic,  173. 
Silicon,  66. 
Silique,  173. 
Silo,  198. 
Silt,  68. 

Simmenthal,  329. 
Sinuate,  420. 
Smut,  269,  272. 
Soap,  soft,  39. 
Soap  making,  39. 
Soda,  64. 

baking,  64. 
Sodium,  63. 
Sodium  carbonate,  64. 

acid,  64. 

Sodium  chloride,  63. 
Sodium  hydroxide,  64. 
Sodium  nitrate,  63. 
Soil,  68. 

acidity  of,  116. 

alluvial,  70. 

clay,  68. 

drift,  70. 

fertility,  98. 

kinds  of,  418. 

limy,  69. 

management,  407. 

sedentary,  69. 
t  transported,  69. 
Soiling,  387. 
Soja  bean,  232. 
Solanaceae,  178. 
Soluble  ferments,  41. 
Sorghum,  199,  213,  215,  226. 
Southdowns,  353. 
Soy  beans,  232. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Spanish  onions,  240. 
Spatulate,  420. 
Spearmint,  223. 
Speltz,  1 86. 
Spermatophytes,  171. 
Spiders,  319. 


INDEX 


431 


Spike,  172. 
Spikelet,  172. 
Spores,  150,  268. 
Sprinkling,  92. 
Squash  bug,  304. 
Stamens,  145. 
Staminate,  147. 
Starch,  37. 
Stassfurt  salts,  51. 
Stearin,  38. 
Stem,  120,  131. 

endogenous,  135. 

exogenous,  135. 
Stems,  underground,  131. 
Stigma,  146. 
Still,  42. 
Stimulants,  223. 
Stipules,  138. 
Stolon  runner,  154. 
Stomata,  140. 
Stooling,  183. 
Stover,  197. 
Stratification,  153. 
Straw,  nutrients  in,  416. 
Strawberries,  257. 
Style,  146. 
Subirrigation,  94. 
Subsoil,  68. 
Sucker,  154. 
Sucrose,  34. 
Suffolk,  346. 
Sugar,  brown,  35. 

granulated,  35. 

grape,  34. 

loaf,  35. 

maple,  35. 

Sugar  beets,  213,  216. 
Sugar  cane,  213. 
Sugar  of  milk,  35. 
Sulphate,  calcium,  55. 

copper,  61. 

of  iron,  60. 
Sulphur,  56. 

flour  of,  56. 
Sulphur  dioxide,  58. 
Sulphur  trioxide,  59. 
Sulphureted  hydrogen,  57. 
Sulphuric  acid,  58. 
Superphosphates,  47. 
Sweet  potato,  237. 
Swine,  358. 

feeding,  390. 


Swine,  rations  of,  414. 
Symbol,  12. 

Tamworth,  362. 
Tankage,  no. 
Tapeworm,  293. 
Taproot,  122. 
Tartar,  cream  of,  64, 
Terminal  bud,  133. 
Thallophytes,  171. 
Thallus  plants,  169. 
Thin  rind,  363. 
Ticks,  321. 
Tiling,  94. 
Tillage,  75. 
Timothy,  225. 

nutrients  in,  416. 
Timothy  seed,  weight  of,  413. 
Toads,  321. 
Tomato,  260. 
Topsoil,  68. 
Toulouse  geese,  376. 
Training  a  horse,  351. 
Transpiration,  141. 
Transplanting,  130. 
Transported  soils,  69. 
Trichina,  294. 
Trotter,  346. 
Truncate,  420. 
Tuber,  131. 
Tubercles,  113. 
Tubers,  232. 
Turkeys,  377. 
Turnip,  237. 

Umbel,  178. 
Umbellifera,  178. 
Undulate,  420. 

Value  of  cow,  338. 
Vegetables,  232. 
Veins,  138. 
Venation,  138. 
Vetch,  nutrients  in,  417. 
Vinegar,  cider,  44. 

Washing  soda,  64. 
Water,  capillary,  72. 

conservation  of,  74. 

hydrostatic,  72. 

hygroscopic,  73. 

of  crystallization,  55. 


43  2 


Water  glass,  66. 
Weathering,  69. 
Weevil,  boll,  219,  299. 
Western  rye  grass,  226. 
Wheat,  183. 

weight  of,  413. 
Wheat  rust,  284. 
Wild  Goose  plum,  25^. 
Winter  feeding,  387. 


INDEX 


Wood  alcohol,  44. 
Worms,  292. 
Wyandottes,  371. 

Yeast,  31. 
Yorkshires,  362. 

Zymeses,  41. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


OCT  27  1932 
NOV  2  8  19M 

DIG     5  1340 


JW8 


1941 


Form  L-9-15m-ll.'27 


DC  SOUTHERN  REGIONA 


A     001  080  396     3 


